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www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 1 History of Database Systems • 1950 s and early 1960 s: • Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage • Tapes provide only sequential access • Punched cards for input • Late 1960 s and 1970 s: • Hard disks allow direct access to data • Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use • Ted Codd defines the relational data model • Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work • IBM Research begins System R prototype • UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype • High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Magnetic tape unit Magnetic tape 2 Hard disk

History (cont. ) www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 3 • 1980 s: • Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems • SQL becomes industry standard • Parallel and distributed database systems • Object-oriented database systems • 1990 s: • Large decision support and data-mining applications • Large multi-terabyte data warehouses • Emergence of Web commerce • 2000 s: • XML and XQuery standards • Automated database administration • Increasing use of highly parallel database systems • Web-scale distributed data storage systems

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www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 11 Database Design • Conceptual design: (ER Model is used at this stage. ) • • • What are the entities and relationships in the enterprise? What information about these entities and relationships should we store in the database? What are the integrity constraints or business rules that hold? A database `schema’ in the ER Model can be represented pictorially (ER diagrams). Can map an ER diagram into a relational schema.

Modeling www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 12 • A database can be modeled as: • a collection of entities, • relationship among entities. • An entityis an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects. • Example: specific person, company, event, plant • Entities have attributes • Example: people have names and addresses • An entity set a set of entities of the same type that is share the same properties. • Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Entity Sets customer and loan customer_id customer_ name street city loan_ number 13 amount

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Attributes 14 • An entity is represented by a set of attributes, that is descriptive properties possessed by all members of an entity set. Example: customer = (customer_id, customer_name, customer_street, customer_city ) loan = (loan_number, amount ) • Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute • Attribute types: • Simple and composite attributes. • Single-valued and multi-valued attributes • Example: multivalued attribute: phone_numbers • Derived attributes • Can be computed from other attributes • Example: age, given date_of_birth

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Composite Attributes 15

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Mapping Cardinality Constraints 16 • Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set. • Most useful in describing binary relationship sets. • For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following types: • One to one • One to many • Many to one • Many to many

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Mapping Cardinalities One to one 17 One to many Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any elements in the other set

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Mapping Cardinalities Many to one 18 Many to many Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any elements in the other set

ER Model Basics www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers ssn 19 name Employees • Entity: Real-world object distinguishable from other objects. An entity is described (in DB) using a set of attributes. • Entity Set: A collection of similar entities. E. g. , all employees. • All entities in an entity set have the same set of attributes. (Until we consider ISA hierarchies, anyway!) • Each entity set has a key. • Each attribute has a domain. lot

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers ER Model Basics (Contd. ) name lot ssn since name ssn lot Employees dname did Works_In 20 budget Departments Employees supervisor subord inate Reports_To • Relationship: Association among two or more entities. E. g. , Attishoo works in Pharmacy department. • Relationship Set: Collection of similar relationships. • An n-ary relationship set R relates n entity sets E 1. . . En; each relationship in R involves entities e 1 E 1, . . . , en En • Same entity set could participate in different relationship sets, or in different “roles” in same set.

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Relationship Sets 21 • A relationshipis an association among several entities Example: Hayes depositor A-102 customer entityrelationship setaccount entity • A relationshipset is a mathematical relation among n 2 entities, each taken from entity sets {(e 1, e 2, … en) | e 1 E 1, e 2 E 2, …, en En} where (e 1, e 2, …, en) is a relationship • Example: (Hayes, A-102) depositor

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Relationship Set borrower 22

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 23 Relationship Sets (Cont. ) • An attributecan also be property of a relationship set. • For instance, the depositor relationship set between entity sets customer and account may have the attribute access-date

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Degree of a Relationship Set 24 • Refers to number of entity sets that participate in a relationship set. • Relationship sets that involve two entity sets are binary (or degree two). Generally, most relationship sets in a database system are binary. • Relationship sets may involve more than two entity sets.

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Degree of a Relationship Set 25 4 Example: Suppose employees of a bank may have jobs (responsibilities) at multiple branches, with different jobs at different branches. Then there is a ternary relationship set between entity sets employee, job, and branch • Relationships between more than two entity sets are rare. Most relationships are binary. (More on this later. )

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Additional features of the ER model since name ssn Key Constraints 26 dname lot Employees did Manages budget Departments • Consider Works_In: An employee can work in many departments; a dept can have many employees. • In contrast, each dept has at most one manager, according to the key constraint on Manages. 1 -to-1 1 -to Many-to-1 Many-to-Many

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 27 Participation Constraints • Does every department have a manager? • If so, this is a participation constraint: the participation of Departments in Manages is said to be total (vs. partial). • Every Departments entity must appear in an instance of the Manages relationship. since name ssn did lot Employees dname Manages Works_In since budget Departments

Weak Entities www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 28 • A weak entity can be identified uniquely only by considering the primary key of another (owner) entity. • Owner entity set and weak entity set must participate in a one-to-many relationship set (one owner, many weak entities). • Weak entity set must have total participation in this identifying relationship set. name ssn lot Employees cost Policy pname age Dependents

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Weak Entity Sets 29 • An entity set that does not have a primary key is referred to as a weak entity set. • The existence of a weak entity set depends on the existence of a identifying entity set • it must relate to the identifying entity set via a total, one-to-many relationship set from the identifying to the weak entity set • Identifying relationship depicted using a double diamond • The discriminator (or partial key) of a weak entity set is the set of attributes that distinguishes among all the entities of a weak entity set. • The primary key of a weak entity set is formed by the primary key of the strong entity set on which the weak entity set is existence dependent, plus the weak entity set’s discriminator.

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Weak Entity Sets (Cont. ) 30 • We depict a weak entity set by double rectangles. • We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed line. • payment_number – discriminator of the payment entity set • Primary key for payment – (loan_number, payment_number)

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Weak Entity Sets (Cont. ) 31 • Note: the primary key of the strong entity set is not explicitly stored with the weak entity set, since it is implicit in the identifying relationship. • If loan_number were explicitly stored, payment could be made a strong entity, but then the relationship between payment and loan would be duplicated by an implicit relationship defined by the attribute loan_number common to payment and loan

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers More Weak Entity Set Examples 32 • In a university, a course is a strong entity and a course_offering can be modeled as a weak entity • The discriminator of course_offering would be semester (including year) and section_number (if there is more than one section) • If we model course_offering as a strong entity we would model course_number as an attribute. Then the relationship with course would be implicit in the course_number attribute

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers ISA (`is a’) Hierarchies 33 name ssn v As in C++, or other PLs, attributes are inherited. v If we declare A ISA B, every A entity is also considered to be a B entity. lot Employees hourly_wages hours_worked ISA contractid Hourly_Emps Contract_Emps • Overlap constraints: Can Joe be an Hourly_Emps as well as a Contract_Emps entity? (Allowed/disallowed) • Covering constraints: Does every Employees entity also have to be an Hourly_Emps or a Contract_Emps entity? (Yes/no) • Reasons for using ISA: • To add descriptive attributes specific to a subclass. • To identify entitities that participate in a relationship.

Aggregation www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers • Used when we have to model a relationship involving (entitity sets and) a relationship set. • Aggregation allows us to treat a relationship set as an entity set for purposes of participation in (other) relationships. ssn name 34 lot Employees Monitors since started_on pid pbudget Projects until dname did Sponsors budget Departments * Aggregation vs. ternary relationship: Monitors is a distinct relationship, with a descriptive attribute. v Also, can say that each sponsorship is monitored by at most one employee. v

Aggregation www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 35 Consider the ternary relationship works_on, which we saw earlier n n Suppose we want to record managers for tasks performed by an employee at a branch

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Aggregation (Cont. ) 36 • Relationship sets works_on and manages represent overlapping information • Every manages relationship corresponds to a works_on relationship • However, some works_on relationships may not correspond to any manages relationships • So we can’t discard the works_on relationship • Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation • Treat relationship as an abstract entity • Allows relationships between relationships • Abstraction of relationship into new entity

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 37 Aggregation (Cont. ) • Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation • Treat relationship as an abstract entity • Allows relationships between relationships • Abstraction of relationship into new entity • Without introducing redundancy, the following diagram represents: • An employee works on a particular job at a particular branch • An employee, branch, job combination may have an associated manager

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers E-R Diagram With Aggregation 38

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Conceptual Design Using the ER Model 39 • Design choices: Should a concept be modeled as an entity or an attribute? • Should a concept be modeled as an entity or a relationship? • Identifying relationships: Binary or ternary? Aggregation? • Constraints in the ER Model: • A lot of data semantics can (and should) be captured. • But some constraints cannot be captured in ER diagrams. •

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Entity vs. Attribute 40 • Should address be an attribute of Employees or an entity (connected to Employees by a relationship)? • Depends upon the use we want to make of address information, and the semantics of the data: • If we have several addresses per employee, address must be an entity (since attributes cannot be setvalued). • If the structure (city, street, etc. ) is important, e. g. , we want to retrieve employees in a given city, address must be modeled as an entity (since attribute values are atomic).

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 41 Entity vs. Attribute (Contd. ) • Works_In 4 does not allow an employee to to from work in a department name dname for two or more periods. ssn lot did budget • Similar to the problem Departments Works_In 4 Employees of wanting to record several addresses for an employee: We want to record several values of the descriptive attributes for each name dname instance of this ssn lot did budget relationship. Accomplished by Works_In 4 Departments Employees introducing new entity set, Duration. from Duration to

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Entity vs. Relationship • First ER diagram OK if a manager gets a separate name discretionary budget for ssn each dept. • What if a manager gets a Employees discretionary budget that covers all managed name depts? ssn • Redundancy: dbudget stored for each dept Employees managed by manager. • Misleading: Suggests ISA dbudget associated with department-mgr combination. Managers since dbudget lot did 42 dname budget Departments Manages 2 lot since Manages 2 dbudget dname did budget Departments This fixes the problem!

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 43 Binary vs. Ternary Relationships • If each policy is owned by just 1 employee, and each dependent is tied to the covering policy, first diagram is inaccurate. • What are the additional constraints in the 2 nd diagram? ssn name pname lot Employees Policies policyid ssn name Dependents Covers Bad design age cost pname lot age Dependents Employees Purchaser Beneficiary Better design policyid Policies cost

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers 44 Binary vs. Ternary Relationships (Contd. ) • Previous example illustrated a case when two binary relationships were better than one ternary relationship. • An example in the other direction: a ternary relation Contracts relates entity sets Parts, Departments and Suppliers, and has descriptive attribute qty. No combination of binary relationships is an adequate substitute: • S “can-supply” P, D “needs” P, and D “deals-with” S does not imply that D has agreed to buy P from S. • How do we record qty?

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Summary of Conceptual Design 45 • Conceptual design follows requirements analysis, Yields a high-level description of data to be stored ER model popular for conceptual design • Constructs are expressive, close to the way people think about their applications. Basic constructs: entities, relationships, and attributes (of entities and relationships). Some additional constructs: weak entities, ISA hierarchies, and aggregation. Note: There are many variations on ER model. • • •

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Summary of ER (Contd. ) 46 • Several kinds of integrity constraints can be expressed in the ER model: key constraints, participation constraints, and overlap/covering constraints for ISA hierarchies. Some foreign key constraints are also implicit in the definition of a relationship set. • Some constraints (notably, functional dependencies) cannot be expressed in the ER model. • Constraints play an important role in determining the best database design for an enterprise.

www. Book. Spar. com | Website for Students | VTU NOTES | Question Papers Summary of ER (Contd. ) 47 • ER design is subjective. There are often many ways to model a given scenario! Analyzing alternatives can be tricky, especially for a large enterprise. Common choices include: • Entity vs. attribute, entity vs. relationship, binary or nary relationship, whether or not to use ISA hierarchies, and whether or not to use aggregation. • Ensuring good database design: resulting relational schema should be analyzed and refined further. FD information and normalization techniques are especially useful.