WWII Begins The 1939 White Paper appeared

WWII Begins • The 1939 White Paper appeared just after the German invasion of Czechoslovakia in March and Italy’s conquest of Albania in April. • Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, officially starting WWII • 1939 British White Paper put the future of Palestine on ice during WWII, land transfers to Jews halted, immigration over 5 years to be held at 75, 000 German Troops enter Poland

War in the Middle East • British position tense at beginning of war: • Italians in Libya pose threat to Egypt and Palestine • British face air and sea attack • Suez became main supply depot for British in Egypt. • Palestine served as training area for troops. • Haifa becomes major oil outlet after pipeline linked to Iraq in June 1940. • The Suez Zone - Persian Gulf connection across Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq crucial for British in Palestine

War in the Middle East • In spring of 1941 Rommel drives British forces back in N. Africa. • Iraqi prime minister Rashid Ali Erwin Rommel al-Gaylani encircled British and called for German aid. • British able to secure Iraq, P. M. and Mufti of Jerusalem flee to Germany. Hajj Amin al-Husayni Iraqi Troops in WWII

Lebanon and Syria • After Germany took France in 1940, the mandates of Syria and Lebanon were uncertain • German agents flocked to the Mandates to prepare them for German control, yet nationalists had no interest - pushed for independence • Riots ensued due to economic difficulty • British, Free French and Arab Legion invaded French mandates in June 1940, resistance strong, but they eventually overcame the Nazis in the region • French wanted to maintain control but could not • 1944 the Soviet union and U. S. gave full diplomatic recognition to the two states, who then declared war on Germany and became charter members of U. N. Independence of Lebanon

British, French, Arabs, Jews • To gain Arab support in Syria, Anthony Eden declared the British would support Arab unity, including postwar independence for Syria. • This infuriated both the French and the Zionists. • As threat receded in the M. E. , Zionists militarily cooperated with British, while working to undermine the 1939 White Paper. • Ben Gurion stated: “For us the White Anthony Eden paper neither exists nor can exist. We must behave as if we were the State of Palestine…” David Ben-Gurion

Jewish Immigration in WWII • Before 1939 W. P. Zionist leaders stepped up illegal immigration. (11, 156 out of 27, 561) • When war began efforts to transfer refugees intensified - leads to conflict with Britain. • British place illegal immigrants in internment camps, so Jews try to flood country with refugees • British then send refugees to island of Mauritius, and encourage countries such as Turkey to deny them transit. • Leads to “war within a war” between Jews and British. Jews Entering Palestine

Jewish Immigration in WWII • In Nov. 1940 about 1, 700 refugees were intercepted by the British and placed on the SS Patria in Port of Haifa for deportation. • The Haganah placed a bomb near the hull in order to disable the ship, thus allowing the Jews to stay. • Instead, the blast sunk the ship, causing over 200 casualties. • Zionist propaganda blamed the British, which led the British cabinet to allow the refugees to stay • Dec. 1941, the Struma with 769 Jews stopped by Turks due to British pressure. Negotiations lasted 2 months until the Turks sent it back out to sea where it sank, with one survivor. • The Zionists blamed the British. SS Patria The Struma

The Jewish Division • British encouraged both Arabs and Jews of Palestine to act as auxilaries in British units. • Chaim Weizmann proposed to the British that they allow the creation of an independent Jewish Division, with the Jewish Agency identified with the mobilization. • This was correctly perceived as a political move towards independence and to enhance Jewish claims after the war. • Churchill supported the idea, but not approved by government until 1944. Weizmann

The Jewish Division: Motives • The Zionists wished to be prepared for situation after war. • Jewish division gave members of Haganah opportunity to gain greater military experience and to gain access to British arms. • Haganah agents carried out numerous raids to steal arms from depots in Palestine with the help of Jewish soldiers. • Jewish soldiers in Europe stole arms and shipped them back to Haganah leaders in Palestine. • British aware, but could do little at the time. • British raids brought open Jewish resistance. • British believed that Zionist leadership was claiming the right to arm in the face of British authority in order to oppose it. Haganah Troops

The Biltmore Conference • Held at Biltmore Hotel in NYC, May 1942 • Conference aimed at uniting American Jewish organizations for fund raising and political activity on behalf of Zionist goals. • The resolutions passed by the conference called for: • Opening Jewish immigration (foreseeing a rush of refugees after war. ) • The Jewish Agency granted control of immigration, and the authority to develop Palestine. • After the war Palestine should “be established as a Jewish Commonwealth integrated in the structure of the new democratic world. ” • Conference very successful at gaining support, especially after news of Holocaust spread Biltmore Conference

The Biltmore Conference • After the Conference: • Books and leaflets sent to members of congress • Calls for financial aid • Christian organizations convinced to back the call for a Jewish state in Palestine - received Zionist subsidies • Gained support for calling upon the U. S. government to oppose the 1939 W. P. • Failures of the Conference: • U. S. government opposed the idea of receiving Jewish immigrants en mass, nor would they exert efforts to find havens for them. - controversy regarding motives. • Conference also led to rift between Ben. Gurion and Weizmann. Jewish Refugees Leaving Germany

The Holocaust • Estimated that between 5 -6 Million Jews put to death • Add other groups: Roma, Soviets, POWs, ethnic Poles, Slavic peoples, disabled, mentally impaired, gay men, Jehovahs’ Witnesses, freemasons total dead: 11 Million • Ideology • “Night of Broken Glass” • Jews encouraged to leave Germany • Borders closed • Ghettoes • Concentration camps • “Open air shootings” A member of Einsatzgruppe D is about to shoot a man sitting by a mass grave

The White Paper: 1942 -1945 • By 1942 Britain reconsidering position on White Paper • Must keep access to Port of Haifa, Haifa-Baghdad road, Haifa-Kirkuk oil pipeline, and military installations to protect their interests. • Wanted to control issue due to success of Zionist propaganda in the U. S. and potential rivalry concerning oil after the war. • Churchill wanted to push alternatives to the White Paper, including a partition plan. • Anthony Eden and others were opposed to changes. Churchill During WWII

The White Paper: 1942 -1945 • In September of 1943 final discussion began in Britain regarding policy in Palestine. • Good news for Weizmann, White Paper unofficially suspended, and Britain had vetoed U. S. push to place Palestine under U. N. control after war. • Before partition officially approved, LEHI assassinated Lord Moyne, deputy minister of state for Middle Eastern Affairs in Cairo. • Moyne close friend of Churchill, so shelved partition, stating: “if our dreams for Zionism are to end in the smoke of assassin’s pistols and our labours for its future to produce only a new set of gangsters worthy of Nazi Germany, many like myself will have to reconsider the position we have maintained so consistently in the past. ” • Churchill never discussed the issue of Partition again, but his warning to Zionists leadership caused them to stop underground activities. Lord Moyne

The Rise of Jewish Terrorism • Upon the British declaration of the White Paper, revisionist terrorist groups, such as the Irgun, led by Jabotinsky, shifted their focus from Arabs to the British. • They began attacking British administrative buildings, police, and bombing popular gathering spots. • When WWII began, Jabotisnky called on revisionists to support the British war effort against the Nazis. • Most of the Irgun complied, but a small faction led by Avraham Stern refused, and continued its attacks on the British in Palestine. • This group emerged as “the Stern gang. ” Stern

The Rise of Jewish Terrorism • Not only did the Stern Gang attack the British, they continued attacks on Arabs, as well as Jewish banks in order to gain needed funding for their operations. • Stern also contacted German and Italian representatives in Lebanon and offered his services against the British in Palestine for the remainder of the war. • He also attempted to get Jewish refugees sent from Germany to Palestine. • It is unclear which was his greater motive • As a result, the Stern Gang was condemned by both the Haganah and Irgun, who then gave the British information leading them to Stern. • Stern was killed in a British raid in Feb. 1942 Cover Letter for Stern’s offer to the Nazis

The Rise of Jewish Terrorism • There was little Jewish underground activity from mid 1942 to the beginning of 1944. • Leaders of Stern Gang dead or in prison • Jabotinsky had been exiled by the British and died in New York - thus Irgun lacked direction. • Leadership of the Irgun passed to Menachem Begin in April 1942, who saw himself as heir to Jabotinsky’s revisionist ideals. • The surviving members of the Stern Gang reorganized under the name LEHI (Lohamei Herut Israel) “Fighters for the freedom of Israel. ” • Both organizations began preparing for new round of attacks against the British due to issues of refugee ships and a growing awareness of the Holocaust. • The two groups decided to join forces under Begin, who was now joined by Nathan Yellin. Mor and Yitzhak Shamir Irgun Poster with Irgun Crest LEHI

The Rise of Jewish Terrorism • Both LEHI and Irgun demanded all original Palestine, Transjordan and parts of southern Lebanon and Syria • LEHI resumed its assassinations of British officials, civilian and military • Begin directed the Irgun to bomb only civilian installations • November 1944 LEHI assassinated Lord Moyne, the deputy minister of state for Middle Eastern Affairs in Cairo, but failed an attempt in October against Sir Harold Mac. Michael, high commissioner in Palestine • Pressure from the Haganah and the Jewish Agency force Irgun and LEHI underground due to British pressure after Lord Moyne’s assassination. • The Haganah mainly went after the Irgun, but Begin never retaliated, which gave it credibility among the Jewish populace. LEHI and Irgun Assassination and bombing

Arab Leadership 1939 -1945 • The Arab Higher Committee had collapsed in 1939 with many of its leaders in exile. • The Mufti was banned from the country after his escape to Lebanon. He then went to Baghdad. • The British sought his approval for the White Paper, fearing his ability to arouse Arab hostility. • The Mufti rejected the proposal, and allied himself with the anti-British Iraqi rebellion in 1941 • When the rebellion failed, he managed to again escape to Iran, then to Italy, and finally Germany. The Mufti of Jerusalem in Germany And with Hitler

Arab Leadership 1939 -1945 November 2, 1943 Himmler's telegram to Mufti: "To the Grand Mufti: The National Socialist movement of Greater Germany has, since its inception, inscribed upon its flag the fight against the world Jewry. It has therefore followed with particular sympathy the struggle of freedom-loving Arabs, especially in Palestine, against Jewish interlopers. In the recognition of this enemy and of the common struggle against it lies the firm foundation of the natural alliance that exists between the National Socialist Greater Germany and the freedom-loving Muslims of the whole world. In this spirit I am sending you on the anniversary of the infamous Balfour declaration my hearty greetings and wishes for the successful pursuit of your struggle until the final victory. Signed: Reichsfuehrer S. S. Heinrich Himmler"

Arab Leadership 1939 -1945 • Other members of the Higher Committee were allowed back into Palestine with a promise not to engage in overt political activity. • Although the Mufti called for rebellion in Palestine, and the Axis powers continually fed propaganda into the region, Palestine remained calm. • Allied military personnel • Disruption of Arab leadership • Those Arab leaders still in Palestine began to cooperate with the British and cautiously with the White Paper. • Time of Arab economic prosperity due to demand of goods and services for Allied military. The Mufti of Jerusalem

Arab Leadership 1939 -1945 • By the end of the war in Europe in 1945, two Arab political power bases had emerged. • There were significant differences between the two, and neither were acceptable to the Zionists • The Istiqlal - gained widespread respect for combating Zionism during the war • called for strict implementation of the White Paper, including the existence of a Jewish National Home composed of those Jews then in Palestine • Zionist still against them because they wanted unlimited immigration and a Jewish state with Jews as the majority • The Palestine Arab Party - The most powerful political voice in Palestine • Called for dissolution of the Jewish National Home and the creation of an Arab government in charge of the entire country • Rejected Jewish presence beyond that of 1917 • Analogous to the calls of LEHI and Irgun. Fakhri Nashashibi of Istiqlal Jamal al-Husseini of PAP

Arab Leadership 1939 -1945 • The division between Palestinian leadership meant that real leadership and representation of the Palestinian cause devolved once more to heads of neighboring Arab regimes. • Most Arab nations were in consensus regarding Palestine and sought to encourage a unified Palestinian front to strengthen the Arab stance, but to no avail. • Such a unified stance would have created the impression of a Palestinian Arab polity with its own leadership instead of a cause advocated by surrogates from neighboring countries. Abdullah Forouk Ibn Saud

The Alexandria Protocol • Arab heads of state met in Alexandria Egypt in Oct. 1944 and issued the Alexandria Protocol. • This called for the formation of a league of Arab states that could coordinate political and commercial activities and goals. • The League of Arab states was formed in March of 1945, based on the recommendations of The Protocol. League of Arab States

The Alexandria Protocol • Another central issue of The Alexandria Protocol was Palestine. • The Protocol stated: “Palestine constitutes an important part of the Arab world that the rights of the Palestinian cannot be touched without prejudice to peace and stability in the Arab world… The Committee also declares that it is second to none in regretting the woes that have been inflicted upon the Jews of Europe by European dictatorial states. But the question of these Jews should not be confused with Zionism, for there can be no greater injustice and aggression than solving the problem of the Jews of Europe by another injustice, that is, by inflicting injustice on the Palestinian Arabs of various religions and denominations. ”

The Alexandria Protocol • The Arab league allowed a Palestinian Arab representative even though it was not a state. • League used by Arab leaders as a way of representing the Palestinian Arab case before the Western world, and to counter Zionist goals. • Ibn Saud met with F. D. R. in 1945, at which time Roosevelt promised him that no steps would be taken in Palestine without consultation with Arab leaders. • Promise meant little - F. D. R. died later that year, and Truman had his own ideas about Palestine.

Impact of WWII on Middle East • League of Arab States (Arab League) formed in May 1945 • One of the chief consequences of WWII for the entire M. E. was the exhaustion of the political, military, and economic strength of Britain and France • Both were eventually forced to withdraw from their imperial control of most of the M. E. • The two new superpowers, the U. S. and USSR, then extended their political and military influence throughout the ME region • The preeminent economic and cultural role of the US in the world gradually became clear to the peoples of the ME • Competition between the U. S. and USSR first affected Turkey and Iran. The Cold war became the chief external factor influencing the nationalists of the Middle East in the years after the defeat of Germany, Italy and Japan