What are the characteristics of urban areas? The study of two urban areas to illustrate: - the range of functions found in urban areas including industrial, commercial, residential and recreational; - the land-use patterns that develop in urban areas; - the social, economic, political and environmental factors that influence land-use patterns. Main case studies: Newcastle, UK Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Newcastle • First settlement in Roman times. Coal mining area followed by shipbuilding and heavy industry during the industrial revolution. By the second half of C 20 th all of these industries had declined. Today offices and retail are the main employers. • River Tyne separates Newcastle and Gateshead. Development limited downstream by the coast so development of Newcastle is now northwards and upwards. • Processes: suburbanisation, suburban intensification, counterurbanisation, regeneration, filtering and gentrification.
Port Moresby • First established by the British in 1880 s as a port and defensive base. Became the capital in 1975. Since then population has doubled and urban area has spread well beyond its historic core. • Limited growth along the coast. Steep hills have created a ‘break’ between the old town and the new town. • Functions: national administration, provision of good and services, some port activities, limited service industry, informal activities. • Processes: agglomeraton, suburbanisation, regeneration, exclusion.
Conclusions from Newcastle and Port Moresby • Impact of physical conditions (esp. coastline, hills and rivers) is much the same in both cities. • Functions differ slightly but tertiary industry is dominant in both. • Same structural components (core, suburban ring, rural fringe). • Segregation of people in both; mainly on the basis of wealth but also ethinicity. • Processes differ because of their development context and ages.
What are the social and economic issues associated with urban change? The study of two contrasting urban areas to illustrate: - why socio-economic deprivation occurs; - the characteristics of urban deprivation, including economic well-being, housing and environmental quality and social conditions. - the social and economic differences existing in urban areas; - the problems of managing the growing demand for services such as health, education and public transport. Main case studies: Birmingham, UK Dhaka, Bangladesh
Birmingham • World’s first industrial city but now a victim of global shift. Today 80% of economic output is due to tertiary industry (major centre of banking, finance and insurance). • Successfully changed its image and has enjoyed strong economic growth. • Problems of growth: – Strain of city’s transport system, overloading during peak hours. Commuters from West Midlands add to the problems. – High rates of unemployment in inner ring. – Benefits of Birmingham’s transformation have not been equally distributed. Prosperous core is now surrounded by a ring of old and inadequate housing, poor services and poverty > disaffection and strong polarisation.
Birmingham • Ranked 16 th out of 354 districts as the most deprived in England. Many in inner ring (ethnic minorities) around core but some pockets in areas of more recent development (mainly S/SW). Most of these pockets coincide with areas of social housing. • Inadequacy of service provision can be partly explained historically: – Housing built during C 19 th mainly for factory workers in the form of small back-to-back terraces with basic water and sewage systems. – Lack of compulsory education at the time meant few schools were ever built. – Post WW 2 area very rundown but sudden influx of immigrants from Caribbean and Indian subcontinent meant regeneration couldn’t happen. – Wholesale redevelopment did take place but local residents were rehoused in temporary high-rise blocks or suburban council estates. Priority was to meet housing demand services took a back seat. Redevelopment may have reduced deprivation but hasn’t eliminated it.
Dhaka • Capital of Bangladesh, one of the winner’s of global shift. TNCs attracted by cheap labour, mainly clothing industry exporting to MEDCs. • High unemployment due to high population growth (4% p. a. created by high rural-urban migration and high fertility) and the fact that population growth outstrips the rate of which new jobs are created >> informal economy (rickshaws). • By LEDCs standards Dhaka is thriving but majority of residents live below poverty line.
Dhaka • Deprivation is clear: malnourished and poorly clothed people, informal settlements (bostis), high crime rate. • Provision of services has lagged very far behind demand due speed of growth (increasing demand rapid change) and poverty of Bangladesh (lack of resources). • Only 2/3 houses supplied by city water system. Sewage system services 25%; 30% have septic tanks and the rest is dumped in the streets. • Has one of the highest rates of infectious disease in Asia. Only 45, 000 hospital beds in whole country and >4000 per doctor. • 20% of children do not receive compulsory education. Literacy rate is 45%. • Key to better service provision is linked to the development of the country.
What are the environmental issues associated with urban change? The study of two contrasting urban areas to illustrate: - the problems of traffic congestion and atmospheric pollution and their management; - the problems of managing increasing volumes of waste; - the problems of managing the growing demand for services such as water and sanitation; - how urban change can create areas of dereliction. Main case studies: London, UK Mumbai, India Supplementary case studies: Cambridge (traffic management); London (waste management); Santiago, Chile (traffic management and air pollution); Worcester (building on the floodplain)
London • • • Water supply: all have safe, piped water but problems in supply meeting demand. Waste management: most properties linked to sewage system, all others have septic tanks. Main problem is how to dispose of increasing amount of domestic waste. Atmospheric pollution: levels decreased with introduction of Clean Air Act, de-industrialisation and strict controls on vehicle emissions. Challenge is to lower levels further. Traffic and transport: congestion charging but problems in trying to persuade people to use public transport. Brownfield sites: extensive use in inner ring e. g. Canary Wharf. Problems include risks of contamination and considering gardens as brownfield sites. Floodplains: much built on Thames floodplain. Thames Barrage gives some protection but expansion of the city (e. g. Thames Gateway) will involve building downstream of the barrage. Olympics site mainly floodplain.
Mumbai • • • Water supply: present supply outstripped by increasing demand; 60% of 18 million inhabitants live in slums and many don’t have access to safe, piped water. Waste management: >5000 tons of solid waste produced each day. Municipal coorporation in charge of disposal cannot cope. Much is dumped by roadside and left to rote >> smell, health risks. Atmospheric pollution: high incidence of chronic respiratory problems due to extreme air pollution. Causes of pollution: industries in eastern suburbs and New Mumbai, garbage burning and insufficient control over emission levels from vehicles. Traffic and transport: 90% commuters use public transport (suburban trains, ferries, buses) as it is cheap and reliable. Low car ownership and distances to work can be vast. Roads heavily congested (591 per km) and >60, 000 deaths per year. Brownfield sites: plenty of derelict land but little investment for regeneration. Some land occupied by squatter settlements. Floodplains: very little of urban area built on floodplain. Concerns over coast and clearance of mangroves (natural barriers). Urban development in these areas are particularly at risk due to high tides and monsoon rains.
Supplementary case studies Cambridge (traffic and transport) • Bus lanes • Cycle lanes • One way streets • Rising bollards • Traffic calming in residential areas • Park and Ride • Pedestrianised areas • M 11/A 14 act like a bypass London (waste management) • 4. 4 million tonnes of municipal household waste per year. • Collected then transported to landfill sites in SE (problematic: takes up land, environmentally unsatisfactory). • Waste expected to increase. • Solution would be to extend existing recycling schemes.
Supplementary case studies Santiago (air pollution) • Primary cause is population growth and huge increased in car ownership. • Public transport is also highly polluting. • Aggravated by Santiago’s location is a broad valley. • Exceeds safe limits set by WHO. • Impacts on health and quality of life (increased rates of morbidity and mortality). Worcester (building on floodplain) • Huge impacts on buildings and people’s lives. • Government is faced with a need to build more and more affordable housing. • Planning applications for developments of floodplains have risen as they offer level and fairly cheap sites. Also as they have been previously ignored by urban growth, can often find sites near to urban core.
How can urban areas be managed to ensure sustainability? The study of at least one example to illustrate how planning and management practices are enabling urban areas to become more sustainable. Main case studies: Bed. ZED, UK; Dongtan, China Supplementary case studies: Northstowe,
Eco-towns July 2007: developers invited to bid for money to build five new ecotowns designed to house between 5, 000 -20, 000 people. - Had to have good transport links to nearby towns and cities; large green spaces; family house dwellings with garden; affordable housing; amenities within walking distance. PROBLEMS - most of the working population will commute via non-carbon neutral transport. - homes can be made carbon neutral but it is difficult to make urban infrastructure so. - building on greenfield sites which is against gov. policy of priotising use of brownfield sites. - complete change of lifestyle. - a development cannot be truly sustainable unless travel, food buying and waste are also addressed.
Bed. ZED • UK’s largest mixed use sustainable community. • Carbon neutral housing. • Local organic food boxes; welcome pack details local markets etc; training for growing your own food. • Private car ownership limited; promoted public transport; reduced need to travel. • Aims to recycle 60%; segregated under sink bins; clothes and furniture swaps.
Dongtan • City will extend to cover 8800 ha and house several million people. • Powered by renewable energy sources (mainly HEP). • All housing within 7 min walk of public transport. • Food will be produced on the island. • Intended to be a worldwide model for how to build sustainably. • Not clear whether development will now go ahead.
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