UNIT 8 Chapter 8 From DNA to

UNIT 8 Chapter 8 From DNA to Proteins

UNIT 3: INTRODUCING BIOLOGY Chapter 8: From DNA to Proteins I. Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material (8. 1) A. Griffith finds a “transforming principle” 1. Griffith experimented with the bacteria that cause pneumonia. Pneumococcus bacteria

2. He used two forms and injected them into mice a. The S, or smooth form (deadly) b. R form, or rough (not deadly). 3. S form of bacteria killed with heat mice unaffected

4. Injected mice with combination of heat-killed and live R bacteria a. Mice died b. Griffith concluded that a transforming material passed from dead S bacteria to live R bacteria, making them deadly.

B. Avery identifies DNA as the transforming principle 1. Experimented with R bacteria and extract made from S bacteria 2. Allowed them to observe transformation of R bacteria 3. Developed process to purify their extract

a. Performed series of tests to find out if transforming principle was DNA or protein b. Performed chemical tests that showed no proteins were present. c. Test revealed that DNA was present

4. Performed tests with Enzymes a. Added enzymes to break down proteins- transformation still occurred. b. Added enzymes to break down RNA- transformation still occurred. c. Added enzymes to break down DNA- transformation failed to occur. d. Concluded DNA was transforming factor

C. Hershey and Chase confirm that DNA is the genetic material 1. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase provided conclusive evidence that DNA was the genetic material in 1952 2. Studied viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophage)

a. Bacteriophage is simple- protein coat surrounding DNA core 1). Proteins contain sulfur buy very little phosphorus 2). DNA contains phosphorus and very little sulfur

b. Experiment No. 1 - Bacteria infected with phages with radioactive sulfur atoms- no radioactivity inside bacteria c. Experiment No. 2 - Bacteria infected with phages with radioactive phosphorus atoms- radioactivity found inside bacteria d. Concluded phages DNA had entered bacteria but proteins had not. Genetic material must be DNA

II. Structure of DNA (8. 2) A. DNA is composed of four types of nucleotides 1. DNA is long polymer composed of monomers called nucleotides.

a. Each nucleotide has three parts 1). Phosphate group 2). Ring-shaped sugar called deoxyribose 3). Nitrogen-containing base b. Scientists first believed that DNA was made of equal parts of four different nucleotides (same in all organisms

2. In 1950 Erwin Chargaff changed thinking by analyzing DNA of several different organisms a. Found same four bases of DNA in all organisms b. Proportions of 4 bases were different in organisms

c. Found amount of adenine equals thymine and amount of cytosine equals amount of guanine. A = T and C = G (called Chargaff’s rules)

B. Watson and Crick developed accurate model of DNA’s three-dimensional structure 1. Used previous work of other scientists and hypothesized that DNA might also be a helix

a. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins used xray crystallography and suggested DNA helical shape b. Work of Hershey, Chase, Chargaff, and Linus Pauling

2. In 1953 Watson and Crick published their DNA model in a paper in the journal Nature a. DNA was double helix b. Strands are complementary (they fit together and are the opposites of each other- pairing of bases according to Chargaff’s rules

3. Nucleotides always pair in the same way a. Backbone formed by covalent bonds that connect sugar of one nucleotide to phosphate of another b. Two sides held together by weak hydrogen bonds between bases c. Base pairing rules- A with T and C with G

III. DNA Replication (8. 3) A. Replication copies the genetic information 1. Replication creates exact copies of itself during the cell cycle 2. Replication assures every cell has complete set of identical genetic information

B. Proteins (enzymes) carry out the process of replication 1. Enzymes begin to unzip double helix (DNA polymerases) a. Hydrogen bonds are broken b. Molecule separates exposing bases

2. Free-floating nucleotides pair up one-by-one forming complementary strands to template

3. Two identical molecules of DNA formed

C. Replication is fast and accurate 1. Process takes just a few hours 2. DNA replication starts at many points in eukaryotic chromosomes. 3. DNA polymerases can find and correct errors.

T A A C A G A A T T G T C T 1. First the DNA must unzip: Enzymes split apart the base pairs and unwind the DNA.

T A A C A G A A T T G T C T

T A A C T A T T A G A C T T G T 2. Bases pair up: Free nucleotides in the cell find their complementary bases along the original strand.

T A A C A G A T A C T A T T G T C T

T C C A A T T C T A A A T A G C A T G T

T C C A A A G A T A C T T C G T A A A T T G 3. Backbone Bonds: The sugarphosphate backbone is assembled to complete the DNA strand

A A C A G A T T G T C T G T T A A C A A T T G T

A A C A G A T T T G T C T A A C A G A T T G T C T

T A A C A C A G A A T T G T G T C T The DNA is now duplicated: The cell can now divide into two daughter cells.

IV. Transcription (8. 4) A. RNA carries DNA’s instruction 1. Francis Crick defined the central dogma of molecular biology a. Replication copies DNA b. Transcription converts DNA message into intermediate molecule, called RNA c. Translation interprets an RNA message into string of amino acids, called polypeptide (protein)

2. In prokaryotic cells processes take place in cytoplasm 3. In eukaryotic cells processes are separated a. Replication and Transcription in nucleus b. Translation occurs in cytoplasm

4. RNA acts as messenger between nucleus and protein synthesis in cytoplasm 5. RNA differs from DNA in three significant ways a. Sugar in RNA is ribose not deoxyribose b. RNA has the base uracil in place of thymine c. RNA is single stranded not double

B. Transcription makes three types of RNA 1. Transcription copies sequence of DNA (one gene) and is catalyzed by RNA polymerases a. DNA begins to unwind at specific site (gene)

b. Using one strand of DNA, complementary strand of RNA is produced c. RNA strand detaches and DNA reconnects

2. Transcription produces 3 kinds of RNA a. Messenger RNA (m. RNA)- code for translation b. Ribosomal RNA (r. RNA)- forms part of ribosome c. Transfer RNA (t. RNA)- brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help make growing protein

3. The transcription process is similar to replication a. Both occur in nucleus b. Both involve unwinding of DNA c. Both involve complementary base pairing

V. Translation (8. 5) A. Amino acids are coded by m. RNA base sequences 1. Translation converts m. RNA messages into polypeptides 2. A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that codes for an amino acid.

a. RNA could code 64 different combinations b. Plenty to cover the 20 amino acids used to build proteins in human body and most other organisms

c. Many amino acids coded by more than one codon d. Also special codons 1). Start codon- signals start of translation 2). Stop codon- signals end of amino acid chain

3. This code is universal- same in almost all organisms a. Suggests common ancestor b. Means scientist can insert gene from one organism into another to make functional protein

B. Amino acids are linked to become a protein 1. Two important “tools” needed to translate a codon into an amino acid a. Ribosome- site of protein synthesis

b. t. RNA- carries free-floating amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosome 1). t. RNA attaches to specific amino acid 2). Has “ 3 -letter” anticodon that recognizes a specific condon

2. Translation occurs in cytoplasm of cell a. m. RNA binds to ribosome b. Ribosome pulls m. RNA strand through one codon at a time

c. Exposed codon attracts complementary t. RNA bearing an amino acid anticodon

d. Amino acids bond together and t. RNA molecule leaves to find another amino acid

e. Ribosome moves down m. RNA attaching more amino acids until reaches stop codon. Protein molecule stop codon

VI. Gene Expression and Regulation (8. 6) A. Your cells can control when gene is “turned on or off” B. Different in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells C. Because cells are specialized in multicellular organisms, only certain genes are expressed in each type of cell.

VII. Mutations (8. 7) A. Some mutations affect a single gene, while others affect an entire chromosome 1. Mutation- a change in an organism’s DNA 2. Mutations that affect a single gene usually happen during replication 3. Mutations that affect group of genes or chromosome happen during meiosis

B. Gene Mutations 1. Point mutation- one nucleotide is substituted for another Result of simple point mutation

2. Frameshift mutation- involves insertion or deletion of a nucleotide in DNA sequence

3. Chromosomal mutationsa. Gene duplication-exchange of DNA segments through crossing over during meiosis b. Gene translocation- results from the exchange of DNA segments between nonhomologous chromosomes

C. Mutations may or may not affect phenotype 1. Impact on phenotype- on a. Chromosomal mutations affect many genes and have big affect organism

b. Some gene mutations change phenotype. 1. A mutation may cause a premature stop codon. 2. A mutation may change protein shape or the active site 3. A mutation may change gene regulation

c. Some gene mutations do not affect phenotype 1. A mutation may be silent 2. A mutation may occur in a noncoding region 3. A mutation may not affect protein folding or the active site.

2. Mutations in body cells do not affect offspring. 3. Mutations in sex cells can be harmful or beneficial to offspring 4. Natural selection often removes mutant alleles from a population when they are less adaptive.

D. Mutations can be caused by several factors 1. Replication errors can cause mutations 2. Mutagens, such as UV ray and chemicals, can cause mutations 3. Some cancer drugs use mutagenic properties to kill cancer cells.

Chapter 8 From DNA to Proteins

The figure below shows the structure of a(an) a. DNA molecule. b. amino acid. c. RNA molecule. d. protein.

Identify structure outlined and labeled by the letter X in Figure below. a. RNA b. Phosphate c. Nucleotide d. 5 -carbon sugar

Which of the following is a nucleotide found in DNA? a. ribose + phosphate group + thymine b. ribose + phosphate group + uracil c. deoxyribose + phosphate group + uracil d. deoxyribose + phosphate group + cytosine

Because of base pairing in DNA, the percentage of a. adenine molecules in DNA is about equal to the percentage of guanine molecules. b. pyrimidines in DNA is about equal to the percentage of purines. c. purines in DNA is much greater than the percentage of pyrimidines. d. cytosine molecules in DNA is much greater than the percentage of guanine molecules.

DNA is copied during a process called a. replication. b. translation. c. transcription. d. transformation.

DNA replication results in two DNA molecules, a. each with two new strands. b. one with two new strands and the other with two original strands. c. each with one new strand one original strand. d. each with two original strands.

During DNA replication, a DNA strand that has the bases CTAGGT produces a strand with the bases a. TCGAAC. b. GATCCA. c. AGCTTG. d. GAUCCA.

In eukaryotes, DNA a. is located in the nucleus. b. floats freely in the cytoplasm. c. is located in the ribosomes. d. is circular.

RNA contains the sugar a. ribose. b. deoxyribose. c. glucose. d. lactose.

Unlike DNA, RNA contains a. adenine. b. uracil. c. phosphate groups. d. thymine.

Which of the following are found in both DNA and RNA? a. ribose, phosphate groups, and adenine b. deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and guanine c. phosphate groups, guanine, and cytosine d. phosphate groups, guanine, and thymine

How many main types of RNA are there? a. 1 b. 3 c. hundreds d. thousands

Which type(s) of RNA is(are) involved in protein synthesis? a. transfer RNA only b. messenger RNA only c. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA only d. messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfe RNA

Which type(s) of RNA is(are) involved in protein synthesis? a. transfer RNA only b. messenger RNA only c. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA only d. messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA

What is produced during transcription? a. RNA molecules b. DNA molecules c. RNA polymerase d. proteins

What does the figure below show? a. anticodons b. the order in which amino acids are linked c. the code for splicing m. RNA d. the genetic code

How many codons are needed to specify three amino acids? a. 3 b. 6 c. 9 d. 12

What happens during the process of translation? a. Messenger RNA is made from DNA. b. The cell uses information from messenger RNA to produce proteins. c. Transfer RNA is made from messenger RNA. d. Copies of DNA molecules are made.

Genes contain instructions for assembling a. purines. b. nucleosomes. c. proteins. d. pyrimidines.

Which type of RNA functions as a blueprint of the genetic code? a. r. RNA b. t. RNA c. m. RNA d. RNA polymerase

A mutation that involves a single nucleotide is called a(an) a. chromosomal mutation. b. inversion. c. point mutation. d. translocation.

Completion: The Watson and Crick model of DNA is a(an) ____________, in which two strands are wound around each other. Double Helix

Completion: The figure below shows three types of ______. RNA molecules

Completion: During transcription, the __________ between base pairs are broken. Hydrogen bonds

Completion: The order of nitrogenous bases in DNA determines the order of __________ in proteins. Amino acids

Completion: The __________ of a t. RNA molecule determines the type of amino acid that bonds with the t. RNA. anticodon

What is the name of the yellow structure that is “landing” onto the blue structure? bacteriophage

What process is taking place below? Translation

Mutations seen below are caused by genes known as _____ genes. hox

These scientists discovered the structure of a DNA molecule. Who are they? Watson and Crick

Which type of RNA below is involved with the process of translation? All three

What process is diagramed below? transcription

What is this structure? Nuclear envelope

Sickle cell anemia is caused by what type of genetic mutation? Point mutation