Unit 2 1648 -1815 Chapter 8 Consolidation of

Unit 2 1648 -1815 Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Power

Big Picture n n n 1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change. States are struggling with political questions, rapid economic change, growing secularism, and nationalism. Continuing to question what had once been basic assumptions about life

Political n n Absolutism Peaks (standard form of gov’t except for constitutional areas in England Netherlands) Enlightenment creates interest in redefining government’s role- French Rev shakes traditionalists to their core

Economic n n European dominance expands locally and globally Nations around and engaged in Atlantic trade become dominant. Industrialization creates a new standard for econ “leader” nations

Popularity of Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment n Scientific knowledge spreads. Emphasis on rationalism encouraged people to approach other issues in the same way- say political or social problems- solve them with scientific tools/theories/methods

Population Change n Big pop. Spike in 16 c- (due to changes in food, improved sanitation etc…) Widespread urbanization begins for 1 st areas to go through I. R.

What is Happening? n n n Consolidation of medieval (feudal) kingdoms into centralized states. Europe is small- there is a limited amount of space- therefore constant competition Church has lost powerwhich left more available for kings

Two Models: Absolutism and Constitutionalism Absolutism: Where? n n Monarchs had complete control over kingdom - no limits to power Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia

Characteristics Philosophy of The King IS the country, not subordinate to nobles or an assembly. The king appoints/controls the bureaucracy. Large standing army. Totalitarian (but w/o attempt of control daily lives of ordinary citizens) Jean Bodin/Thomas Hobbes wrote during civil wars in Fr and Eng - both believed the state (king) needed to be strong to protect the people from themselves Bishop Bossuet- “divine right of kings”

Decline of Spain During 16 c Spain was the most powerful country in Europe- but they fell almost as fast as they had risen Inquisition- reduced population from 7. 5 -5. 5 million- and the ones who left were best and brightest Command econ controlled by crown- and not well. Trade fell 60% from 1600 -1660 (lost out to Eng and Dutch) Taxes very high for peasantslittle incentive to start business etc… Inflation from new world silver caused “price revolution”

Economic Difficulties n n n Lots of $$ came in from vast colonial empirebut it only went to a few groups. Castile controlled bureaucracy, Seville had monopoly on Atlantic shipping, Barcelona on Med. Shipping Fought lots of wars- and lost a lot (expensive) New world silver started to dry up Lost Netherlands

Political and Military Decline n n Defeat of Spanish Armada (1588)in their attempt to invade England a real turning point. Also- on losing side of 30 years war (lost Netherlands) By 1700 Spanish navy had 8 ships Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict from 30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands) end of Spain as a great power- become a backwater dreaming of former glories

Revolt and Secession “Spain” had been created by Ferdinand Isabella out of Castile/Aragon- but there were still independent areas. Weak leadership of Philip III, Philip IV, Charles II encouraged them to challenge crown. 1630 -40 s revolts broke out- largest in Catalonia & Portugal (Portugal successfully independent 1668) n Also rebellions in Spanish holdings in Europe- like Italy (Sicily/Naples rebel) n Losing power steadily n

Absolutism in France n n n Had a history of intermittently strong royal power since Charlemagne. Valois spent Renaissance building royal power. Bourbon planned to continue Strong bureaucracy, invented concept of “divine right of kings” Enhanced legitimacy of royalty all over Europe

Henry IV Louis XIII 1 st king of Bourbon dynasty (r. 1589 -1610) determined to strengthen Fr. by strengthening gov’t. Weakened nobility by not allowing feudal nobility (nobility of sword) to hold bureaucratic positionscreated new noble titles (nobility of robe) for those - therefore those nobles loyal to king R. 1610 -1643. Came to throne as child (Henry assassinated by RC fanatic) Mother regent- but Fr. Ruled by his ministers (Richelieu) Irony- this is when Fr. Is becoming absolutist- but Louis never had strong personal power

Cardinal Richelieu Minister to King 1585 -1642. Built royal power (which he used for himself, in name of king) Rebuilt royal treasury after 30 years warcreated intendant system for collecting revenue A politique (like Henry IV) he cared more about power of France than personalities or religion. Ran policy during 30 years war- goal was to weaken the Hapsburg dynasty- supported whatever side needed to do that (so Fr. Flip flops around) Began to push down Huguenots- whom he saw as a threat to power of Fr. - taking their rights to fortify towns and have independent armies

Duke of Sully Intendant System Defined Mercantilism- use colonies to create favorable balance of trade (use colonies for raw materials/markets- don’t allow them an ind. Econ. ) Reformed tax systemencouraged gov’t to improve transportation system to improve trade Civil servants (not noble- bourgeoisie) who report directly to king. Created greater efficiency in gov’tmore centralized control

The Fronde 1648 -1653 When Louis XIII died- his 5 year old son became king. Another regency made nobles unhappy- led to an uprising (fronde=slingshot) Nobles demanded parlements w/right to approve taxes. Royal family in danger several times- made a big impression on young Louis XIV Revolt ended in failure- primarily because competition between noble families prevented them from uniting effectively

Cardinal Mazarin n Chief minister while Louis xiv a child (not as ambitious as Richelieu) used power to gain $$ for himself. n n Used army against population to ensure prompt/full payment of taxes - made him (and king) unpopular Louis ended regency in 1652 when he was 14 Mazarin remained an “advisor” until he was 23

The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV Ruled 72 years. Dominated Europe- this was the “Age of Louis XIV, the “Sun King” who said “L’etat C’est Moi” Manipulated affections/ambitions of his courtiers- made sure all gov’t ministers loyal only to him- tolerated no opposition. Tricky balancing act nobles/peasants/clergy all had to be managed Golden age of France Louis Personified the idea that the sovereignty and glory of the nation reside in it’s ruler. French Culture dominated Europe France had the largest population in Europe- 17 million in 1650 - allowed them to keep a big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille- head tax)

Divine Right Louis XIV was very religious. Believed kings were a race apart from mortal men, appointed anointed by God. Kings had to follow God’s laws (man’s, not so much) Expected to rule for the good of their people, but could not be questioned Louis believed France existed to serve his glory- that by living the most magnificent life possible- he was making France a better place

Building a Centralized Bureaucracy Richelieu and Mazarin had cleared old nobility out of gov’t but there was still more to be done. Provinces and nobles still had lots of local independent power- and Louis didn’t want that Continued and expanded intendant system- applied it to regional/local gov’t. Blocked power of noble assemblies (parlementswhich had been created in Fronde) by refusing to allow them to meetnever called Estates General

Corvee n n n Forced labor for king. (rather like old feudal obligations to nobles) All peasants required to work 1 month of the year on royal projects. Also allowed peasants to be conscripted into the royal army

Versailles Made it not only his home- but the center of gov’t. Kept nobles and bureaucrats there- so he could keep an eye on them Often called a “theater state” of formalized ritual. Also a “pleasure prison” for nobilitykept so entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they had lost their power

Mercantilism n n Finances were Louis’s weak point- assumed France was a bottomless well of wealth. Appointed Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister- defined new econ concept Mercantilism: A country’s wealth is based on their supply of gold- so countries must sell more than buy abroad so they maintain gold reserves. Thought France should be self sufficient- led to development of new industries. Colonies helpful to mercantilism as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.

Bullionism n n Goal of country is as much gold/silver as possible. Originated French trading companies (French East and West India Co) to make $$ and a French Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad. Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream

Weaknesses n n n Created poor peasant conditions- and high taxes (nobles don’t pay taxes- Louis wants them happy) Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no navy- will end up causing colonial issues Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for new world (which would have solved several problems)

Court Culture at Versailles Elaborate entertainments and rituals. Nobles vied for the honor of serving the king (took 3 hrs to get dressed) Everyone engaged in petty competition- nobles busyand useless. Most spectacular palace ever (and huge- 15, 000 people lived there) Made France center of culture Europe. French became language of sophistication Original structure built by Louis XIII as a hunting lodge. Architect Louis Louvois “enveloped” the lodgeincorporating it into new palace. Palace 1/3 mile long Built on swampland (drained 1400 fountains: gardens by Le. Notre) so that Louis could prove his will was greater than even nature’s 60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on building and maintaining Versailles

French Classicism n n n A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of order and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand restrained at same time) Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of Versailles Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did the first French Operas

Revocation of Edict of Nantes Henry IV had meant edict as a compromise measure to end conflict- not as a permanent solution. n Louis VERY catholic- 1685 ordered revocation- all Huguenots had to be baptizedor exiled. Popular- but probably bad for France in the long run. One king, One law, One faith- Louis felt this was necessary for his absolutist power to be effective. n

Edict of Fontainebleau Jansenists Catholics who either The law which revoked Nantes. 200, 000 Huguenots left Francemost for Holland, England or other colonies of New World (can’t go to French colonies) Cut significantly into French middle classes sympathized with or had some Calvinist ideas- they got cracked down upon as well

Louis XIV’s Wars France has borders with many countries n Marquis de Louvois (military advisor to king) said army is the base of the strength of the nation. Increased size of permanent army from 25, 000 in 1625 to 100, 000 in 1642 to 250, 000 in 1659. n This was a professional army- with all high ranking officers appointed by the king, uniforms, weapons, and training all standardized n

Balance of Power System Alliances of various states (based on their goals) were constantly shifting The idea of trying to create a balance was new (borrowing from Italy during Ren) France often won their warsbut still they were really expensive. William of Orange (Netherlands) most important in blocking ambitions of Louis - but needed many other countries to challenge France’s strength Start of 2 nd 100 years of Conflict between Eng and Fr

War of Devolution 1667 -1668 Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte (Burgundy) saying that Spain had not fully paid the dowry of his wife- so these lands should “devolve” to him. n France beat Spain, but had to draw back when England, Sweden, and Dutch joined the Spanish side. n Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French got to keep towns in Spanish Netherlands n

Dutch War 1672 -78 n n n To break up the Eng/Swed/Dutch alliance the French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance (Eng/Dutch were trade rivals) Louis personally led the invasion- Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country. Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy

Nine Years War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688 -1697 France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty(whom they saw as rivals) Invaded Strasbourg & Lorraine- wanted to push the border of France to the Rhine. (and nervous b/c William of Orange just became king of England) n Opposed by coalition of Eng, Dutch, Spanish, Swed, Austrian, and German princes n

War of Spanish Succession 1701 -1714 n n n Last Spanish Hapsburg king (Charles II) dies w/o an heir. Louis and Leopold (HRE) both claim throne of France. Charles had left throne to Louis’ grandson (Charles’ nephew) Philip of Anjou. Other nations worry this will give France too much influence. Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France (Grand Alliance- commanded by Duke of Marlborough- who defeats France at battle of Blenheim) Peace of Utrecht 1714 - most important since Peace of Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne - but neither he nor successors can ever claim throne of France. Britain gets Asiento (slave

Results of Wars n n n Destroyed the French economy- monster debt- France is bankrupt when Louis XIV dies. 20% of French population injured/killed in battle- or starved as result of conflicts (seeds of French revolution) People spend the next 150 years worrying about French aggression

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe n n Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central and Eastern Europe All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia most centralized in terms of royal power

Different from France had strong king, efficient bureaucracy/town councils/free peasants. E. Euro had powerful nobles, and serf population Austria- After the 30 years war. Hapsburg dynasty had lost most of their western territory- focus on consolidating what they still had. Prussia was a new nation- a growing power. (they will eventually unite the German states into “Germany”) Russia was also a new powernewly involved in Europe. French middle class was coming to dominate econ (overseas trade and manufacturing) the influence of the nobility had been waning since end of 100 years war. E. Euro had little heritage of centralization, and multi-ethnic, multi-religious empires (not Prussia) and size issues. Also Faced threat of invasion from outside civ (esp. Ottomanswho attacked Austria multiple times) kept warfare pretty constant

Serfdom n n Serfdom died a natural death in western Europe- but experienced a revival in East during 1300 s after population devastation of Black death. By 1500 the vast majority of peasant population fully enserfed- at complete legal mercy of local nobility. Will hold them back during this time of dynamic change- most of their population can’t change Econ stays fully agricultural- with far fewer large towns/cities to promote new ideas

Consolidation of Austria Southeastern territory of HRE: large, unhomogenous empire (Germans, Hungarians, Italians, Serbs, Romanians, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats), held together by Hapsburg Dynasty. Looks impressive on paper- lots of land. Not so impressive in terms of power Hapsburgs are already a fading dynasty- in 1500 they controlled 2/3 of Euro and new world, now have lost significant territory No single constitutional system for empire- different parts tied to Emperor with different rules/obligations. Would like to be absolutist (and are in many ways)- but have multiple issues to deal with

Leopold I 1658 -1705 n n Fought Louis xiv for Spain in the War of Spanish Succession (lost) Inherited HRE after 30 years war- tried to consolidate royal power. Often blocked by nobles who had significant local authority- and he had no way to block them Devote RC- gave all gov’t positions to Catholics (tricky in an empire that is about 1/3 protestant) Built Schoenbrunn in Vienna to Rival Versailles in France Ottomans attacking- had to give a lot of attention to Hungary which was a battle zone, culminating in the siege of Vienna 1683.

Charles VI 1711 -1740 n n Threatened by French expansion- allied with England to check French aggression Father of Maria Theresa (Austria’s most famous ruler) knew he would be leaving throne to a daughter - issued “Pragmatic Sanction” asking rulers of Europe to respect his heir, and saying Hapsburg possession could never again be divided

Rise of Brandenburg Prussia Small states in Northern Germany- ruled by Hohenzollern dynasty. Scattered territories at first- will be fused together and become leader of German identity Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate areas (2 of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come to be dominated by Prussia

Frederick William. The Great Elector 1640 -1688 Not a king, but created a kingdom. Will mold Brand-Prussia into an independent (and absolutist) state. 3 disconnected pieces after treaty of Westphalia Collected taxes, created a professional army, which allowed him to rule w/o support of nobles Calvinist- but allowed religious tolerance (allow about what was efficientavoid hassles) Involved with Sweden/Poland over control of northern territory in Europe Began to lay groundwork for Prussian militarismheavy taxes to pay for strong military (2 x that of France)

Junkers Prussian nobility. Fred. William created tradeoffs to get royal power he was looking for- and keep nobles happy. (for example, he collected the taxes, they had total control over their serfs) n Junkers came to dominate officer corps of new military- took oath directly to elector (later king) which gave him power. n Unlike many nobles- Prussians were interested in trade/industry (ex. Of Eng and Holland) Did try overseas trade- big failure, lack of ports and navy n

Frederick I 1688 -1713 n n 1 st “king” of Prussia. Got recognition from Hapsburgs in return for his support against Louis xiv in War of League of Augsburg and War of Sp. Succession. Very popular

Frederick William I 1713 -1740 Often called the “anti” Louisin that he cared nothing for “fancy” (pawned crown jewels to buy artillery) Army was of prime importance to the strength of nation (doubled size). Always appeared in uniform (the soldier king) Canton System: soldiers in regiment all came from same area. Fought infrequently- frugal, left a full treasury to his son Goal was to make Prussia the “Sparta of the North”not a state with an army, but an army with a state. 80% of gov’t revenue went to military- used deterrence to avoid actual war. Very efficient bureaucracy - could come from any class, rise based on merit

Frederick the Great 1740 -1786 Used army to invaded and capture Silesiawhich doubled Prussia’s population, helped est. Prussia as a great power. Known as an “Enlightened Despot” for his appreciation of new ideas of gov’t, (Voltaire) while keeping reigns for himself. Mad his dad nuts, loved art, music, poetry etc…

Russia: Emergence of an Absolutist State n n Kiev Rus- during middle ages Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe had built a variety of cities connected by trade routes from Scandinavia to the Byzantine empire. (Kiev largest and most important) Main cultural influence came NOT from Latin heritage of Europe- but Greek influences of Constantinople (Cyrillic alphabet, Orthodox Christianity) Conquered by Mongols (1250 -1450) Get “left out” of Europe (miss renaissance, reformation etc…) Far inland- and to the north- outside of “normal” European sphere. Always seen as “backwards”

Expansion of Russia before 1650 n n Princes of Moscow became leading Russian nobles- Mongols use them as their tax collectors As Mongol rule collapses, they will step in to lead Russia

Ivan III 1442 -1505 In 1480 refused to pay any more tribute to the Mongol Khan (who were weak anyway) and declared himself “Tsar” of Russia (means “Caesar” he was married to a byzantine princess, when Constantinople fell to Turks he felt Moscow would take its place) n Acquired land through war and marriage created a Cossack class of free peasants by giving them freedom and land to settle in new areas (spread his power) n Ivan the Great n

Ivan IV 1533 -1584 n n n Russia was feudal- Boyars were Russian nobilitymuch more traditional style - with military obligations etc… Ivan sought to control nobles by creating a new aristocracy Oprichniki- and killing boyars. Killed son’s wife- and son/heir- Ivan the Terrible n Boyars resented newly created royal power. Ivan came to throne @ 3 - they rebelled and threatened his life many times (killed mom) n Created 1 st version of Russia’s secret police for reign of terror. Gained territory in black sea (taking land from Poland- a Russian theme) Increased serfdom to keep peasants tied to noble lands- also bound merchants to particular towns- limited capitalism n n

Time of Troubles Romanov Dynasty n n 1584 - 1600 ish Ivan died w/o an heir- so competition, quasi war broke out between boyar families for who would control throne n n n Michael Romanov elected Tsar in 1613 (Romanovs favored keeping power in hands of boyars in return for their support) Expanded Russia to East 1689 Russia is largest country in World- 3 x the size of Europe- most of Empire not IN Europe

Peter the Great 1682 -1724 n n Tsar primarily responsible for transforming Europe into a western power. Understood that changes were happening in Europewanted to get on board Not all boyars/peasants liked the idea of change- he didn’t care n n Peter was a giant- literallynearly 7 ft tall, could bend a horseshoe barehanded. Russia is Feudal- Tsars technically “own” all the landthere are no representative political bodies. Old Believers: people who resisted (severely persecuted) Big focus on creating a modern military (75% of budget) each village had to send a certain # of troops for a 25 year enlistment.

St Petersburg n n Wanted a warm water port for navy and trade. Gained access to Baltic Sea (through Great Northern War against Poland/Denmark) Built a new capital as showplace of modernization- his “window on the west” n n Copied Amsterdam (soggy territory) built Winter Palace to rival Versailles Created a cosmopolitan city by inviting the people he needed (artists, musicians, philosophers) to live there

Program for Westernization n As a young man, Peter travelled (incognito) to Europe to observe and study other countries. Imported western technicians and artisans to bring new industries (like shipbuilding) to Russia. State controlled industrynot really capitalistic (Tsar gave monopolies) but had huge resources- but end of reign Russia out produced Eng in iron

Military n n n Built army by drafting peasants- created soldiers by offering them an alternative to serfdom (pay etc…) Royal army 200, 000. Introduced cannons and firearms to Russian combatmodern military technology Built roads and bridges to transport army- and a navy from scratch (which decline after he died)

Social Peter required adoption of European cultural attitudes- styles of dress, cut the beards (by force if necessary) Women required to appear at court society n Introduced French language to his court- required all nobles to learn it and speak it exclusively. n Kept taxes high (but not for nobles) used secret police to enforce n

Bureaucratic n n Reorganized bureaucracy for greater efficiency in tax collection and industrial production. Set education standards for bureaucrats. Table of Ranks: you gain gov’t positions based on merit rather than just aristocratic status. Eliminated many titles- issued new ones (loyalty)

Results n Significant conflict of Slavic culture vs. westernization. Peter imitated selectively- not interested in business or capitalism n Brought Russia into Europe- but not really mainstream yet.

Alternatives to Absolutism Constitutionalism: what is it? n n n The government (king) is limited by law- the law itself is the supreme power in the country. Implies a balance between power of gov’t and rights of citizens Used in Sweden, Poland, England, and the Netherlands n Opportunities for other voices/powers will allow capitalistic growth- allowing econ to grow particularly strong in Netherlands and England

Sweden n King Gustavas Adolphus (16111632) got Sweden involved in European affairs through 30 years war. Sweden dominated Baltic region (defeating Russia and Poland- until Peter. . . ) n n Riksdag: assembly of nobles, clergy, townspeople which had highest legislative authority. Shared power with king Sweden began some Atlantic colonizing/trade (Delaware) then pulled back

Charles XII 1697 -1718 n n Defeated by Peter the Great in Baltic. Nobles took advantage of that defeat (and king died in battle) to force Queen Ulrika to accept a constitution which gave nobles significant power. Riksdag restructured to be more like Parliament (though with nobles in charge, not gentry)

Poland Lithuania In 16 c was a Commonwealth bordered by Russia, HRE, Austria, and Ottoman Empire (included Belarus and Ukraine) n Polish and Lithuania kingdoms united by treaty of Lubin in 1569. Had a weak king elected by nobles- made country a “republic of nobles” n For a time was the most diverse, tolerant society in Europe. Eventually divided between Austria, Russia and Prussia n

The Netherlands A small country- but the Dutch ideas attitudes played a significant role in shaping the modern world view. n Recognized as independent in the treaty of Westphalia. Seven provinces- each with considerable autonomy n Religious tolerance- Calvinist- but not exclusive n Amsterdam replaces Antwerp (in Sp Netherlands) as banking/commercial center of Netherlands n

Golden Age Greatest mercantile nation- went out in the world to trade (not conquer) Carrying Tradeserved as shipping company for many colonies- charged a fee and made a profit. n Center of scientific, literary, and artistic achievements. n Gov’t dominated by bourgeoisiewhose wealth limited power of king n

Stadholders n n Netherlands did not have ancient aristocratic families- they had oligarchies of merchants, financiers and traders, Burghers- town officials. “Regents” elected provincial “stadholder”- executive officer. House of Orange unofficial leader of stadholders (William the Silent) In times of crisis (war) power of all 7 powers could be given to one stadholder- making him effective king.

Problems with England n n n During English Civil War Cromwell’s parliament passed Navigation actscolonies cannot trade with anyone but Eng. Seemed to target Dutch carrying trade So Dutch begin to fight England (sometimes- also allies against Fr) n n Had to rely on commerce b/c they have so few natural resources. Not big enough to create large colonies- but had largest fleet in Euro and Significant fishing trade. Dutch East/West

William II of Orange n n War of League of Augsburg made him permanent head stadholder. In 1688 he became King of England (through his wife Mary- they were co-rulers) brought Eng. More into affairs of continent Used balance of power to contain Fr. n Heavily involved in wars against Louis XIV- they fight all in (flooding countryside etc…) It was expensive – even when they were winning- they use up a lot of energy, never again quite as large

Constitutionalism in England n n Began with Magna Carta. Kings willing to have a legislature, particularly if they could use it to legitimize their own ideas. Really won POWER in English Civil War- they deposed (and n Capitalism played a significant role in constitutionalismcreated social mobility. England had a larger middle class than anywhere in Europe (except Netherlands - also constitutional)

Beginnings n n n Gentry One Parliament for the whole country (unlike France) House of Lords- all hereditary nobles House of Commons -> gentry n n Wealthy landowners w/o significant noble title (knight at best) Many had made fortunes in commerce, then retired. Paid taxes (as did nobles) less stigma on making $$ than

Problems with Stuarts (not on outline- add to side) n n n Stuart dynasty had absolutist tendencies (spent too much time in France!) Real issue of war- can king govern without consent of parliament (as Charles I was trying to do) Petition of Right 1628: Parliament attempted to settle this question before war began- said only parliament can levy taxes, said there had to be due process of law (Habeas Corpus)

The Protectorate/Interregnum 1653 -1658 n n When Charles I executed in 1649 parliament declared martial law- then a Commonwealth. (Parliament technically in charge- Cromwell really ruling as a military dictatorship- Lord Protector) England at its most absolutist during this period- just Puritan absolutism. Censored press, closed theaters & entertainments. Crushed Ireland (feared royalist stronghold) n Pride’s Purge- 1653 all non puritans removed from gov’t. n Act of Settlement- 2/3 of land in Ireland taken from Irish and given to English Landlords

The Restoration Charles II 1660 -1685 n n n England got tired of Cromwell and Puritanism. When he died parliament decided to “restore” Charles II to his father’s throne. Charles always careful not to provoke parliamentavoided extremes. Kept a permanent council of 5 men who were his advisors as well as members of Parliament- kept communication going- Cabinet Charles had an affable personality. Did not punish parliament or country for war/father’s death- seemed just as anxious as they were for a good time. Known as the “merry monarch”

Political Parties n n n Tension between religious factions remains very strong in Euro during 17 c. Stuarts nominally protestant- really very pro-RC (and pro French) Whigs: (liberal) anti RC- did not want James II (openly RC) to inherit throne. Middle class, Calvinist, favored Business and Econ progress Tories: (conservative) supported strong monarchy. Anglican. Nobility, clergy, favored status quo.

Religious Issues: Test Act n n 1673 Charles II suspended laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters. Parliament responded by passing a law which said you had to be Anglican (or at least take Anglican Communion) to hold gov’t office or military officership

Glorious Revolution 1688 n n Final chapter in English struggle over sovereignty. England doesn’t have a single document as it’s constitution- significant acts join together as body of law- lots of them created here

James II n n Charles II’s younger bro - became king in 1685 at 55 years old. Pro Catholic and Absolutistand proud of it baby Appointed Catholics to gov’t positions in defiance of law- passed Act of Indulgence: freedom of worship for RC n n At first, parliament (and people) figure they will just hold on- he’s not a young guy, and his heirs (2 grown daughters) are both protestant But he married again (20 year old daughter of Louis xiv) in 1686, she gave birth to a son 1688. Faced with a Catholic heir, and absolutist Fr. Regentparliament decided they have to act

William and Mary n n n Complete the journey towards constitutionalism Parliament offered throne to oldest daughter Mary (married to William of Orange- who offered Dutch army to force James out if necessary) James leaves (he and heirs become “pretenders” to the throne) William and Mary are crowned as co-rulers “Glorious” b/c there is no bloodshed

Bill of Right n n n Toleration Act 1688 W & M agree not to keep standing army w/o parliament’s consent. Parliament will meet every year and have elections every 3 years, have sole power to tax. Says king CANNOT be RC Ensures no Cruel and Unusual punishment and trial by Jury n n 1689 All forms of protestants have freedom of worship and may hold office Did not offer those same rights to Catholics or Jews, but did not punish them for their faith either.

Act of Settlement n Act of Union 1701 If W & M, or Anne (other sister) die w/o heir (which they did)- throne does not revert to heirs of James II, but to grandchildren of James I- the Electors of Hanover. George I of Hanoverian dynasty will become king in 1714 n 1707 United England Scotland (reconquered by Charles II w/o much fuss) into Great Britain. Union was to prevent Stuarts from using Scotland as launching spot for invasion of England (which is what they were doing in Ireland)

NOT Democracy n Bloodless revolutionbut not “by the people” Parliament only represented the top of society- voting rights were strictly limited to large landowners n n Parliament represents the upper 10% at this point- but that is still 10% more than have a voice in most of the countries of Europe John Locke: wrote to defend the Glor. Revsaying that people have the right to overthrow a gov’t that is not defending their rights