THEORETICAL PHONETICS separate chapters Lecture 18 PHONOSTYLISTICS

THEORETICAL PHONETICS (separate chapters) Lecture 18. PHONOSTYLISTICS

(2) Phonostylistics as a branch of Phonetics 5. 1. 1. When language is used in speech phonetic units undergo various changes. These variations are the result of extralinguistic factors, because they lie outside the system of the language. Phonostylistics is a new way of looking at phonetic phenomena. In real life people use their language appropriately depending on the situations they are in. Language is a means of communication and people select different language means forming the style of speech. 5. 1. 3. Purpose or aim of communication is the main style forming factor used by the speaker. It is the general strategy of the language user. Aims of communication can be different: - Giving information - Educating - Producing emotional impression - Influencing a person’s mind (persuading) - Conversing. (Sokolova M. A. Theoretical. Phonetics of English)

(3) 5. 1. 3. Extralinguistic factors Formality determines the use of phonetic means. It results from the character of relationships among the participants ranging from extreme degrees of formality to extreme degrees of informality. Formality indicates how the speaker interacts with the listener. According to the degree of formality speech situations are generally described in terms of formal – informal, official – unofficial. Another factor connected with the degree of formality is the number of addressees. Discourse can be public or non-public. Speech is qualified as public when the speaker is listened to by a group of people; non-public communication occurs in face-to-face interaction. However, there is no direct correlation between the formality of the situation and public - non-public character of communication.

(4) cont. Another important extralinguistic factor is the degree of spontaneity. People can speak spontaneously, in everyday conversation, or nonspontaneously, like actors, lecturers, etc. In spontaneous speech can be elements of ‘hesitation’ which breaks regularity and evenness of the phonetic form. There appear pauses of various length and quality, lengthening of sounds within words and in the word final position. It is also characterized by a number of features: simplification of sound sequences, non-systematic rhythm; incomplete melody contours; abundance of pauses, varying loudness, narrow pitch range, varying tempo (from very fast to very slow). The speaker’s attitude is another category which is included into the set of style-forming factors. It is natural for the speaker consider the situation from his /her point of view revealing personal interest and involvement in what he/she is saying. All these extralinguistic factors determine the choice of phonetic means in different forms of communication. Generally there are two forms of communication depending on the number of participants involved in a speech activity – monologue and dialogue. The difference between them is that in monologue the speaker does not expect an immediate response, while in a dialogue there is interaction – participants expect each other to respond.

(5) Stylistic use of intonation. Intonational styles Stylistically distinctive function of intonation is determined by the intonational styles, which are the following: 1. Informational 2. Academic (Scientific) 3. Publicistic (Oratorial) 4. Declamatory (Artistic) 5. Conversational (Familiar) Ø The classification of phonetic styles is based on the purpose of communication, which is the most significant extra-linguistic factor. Ø Variations of intonation are basically determined by the aim of communication.

(6) 1. Informational Style 5. 3. 2. This phonetic style is qualified as “neutral” because the main purpose of the speaker is to convey information without expressing personal concern and involvement. It is manifested in informational texts, like press reporting, broadcasting, reading news coverage over the radio. Any variety of the language, both written and spoken, may be presented either by reading or speaking, in a prepared or spontaneous way, in a formal or informal manner. Speech typology and informational style registers Speech typology Informat ional style registers Varieties of the language reading spoken, r eading Forms of communication monologu e dialogue polylogu e Degrees of preparedness prepared spontan eous Number of participants involved public nonpublic Character of participants’ relationship formal informal

Ø Ø Ø (7) 2. Academic style 5. 3. 3. The speaker’s aim is to get the information across to the listener, to educate, to instruct. It is frequently manifested in lectures, scientific discussions, at conferences, seminars and in classes. There can be different types of lectures, they vary in the degree of formality, the competence and individual manner of the lecturer and so on. Public lectures are usually prepared in advance and therefore represent the written variety of the language read aloud. Academic presentations are generally well prepared The lecturer sounds self-assured, authoritative, instructive and edifying The degree of loudness is determined by the size of the audience High-falling and falling-rising terminal tones are widely used as a means of both logical and contrastive emphasis The rhythmical organization of the text is properly balanced by the alternation of all prosodic (intonational) features which gives the acoustic impression of “rhythmicality”. Nowadays academic presentations considerably depend on the following factors: topic, number of listeners, their qualitative characteristics (ethnic, social, cultural, cognitive, psychological), character of speaker / audience relationship (formal / informal), method of delivery, individual manner of the lecturer.

(8) 3. Publicistic style Ø • • • 5. 3. 4. This style is often called “oratorial”. It is a very broad notion because there is a great deal of overlap between academic, publicistic and declamatory style when the basic aim of the speaker is persuasion. It is achieved through a combination of rhetorical strategies. Public speakers / politicians make their presentations more effective using various prosodic features and producing vocal effect. Publicistic style is manifested in political, judicial, oratorial speeches, in sermons, parliamentary debates, at congresses, meetings, press conferences, and so on. Public speaking is an art and rhetorical skills need special training. Intonation has always been of primary importance giving the speech emotional colouring. Publicistic style speeches are never spontaneous. A public speech is generally written and rehearsed beforehand, however, the speaker tries to create the effect of spontaneity which contributes to effective interaction with the audience. It is strongly advisable not to use notes during the speech performance because they might destroy contact with the listeners. Public monologues are characterized by variations and contrasts within the systems of pitch, loudness, tempo and timbre components.

(9) cont. • Any public speech is fully prepared and even rehearsed, it usually goes smoothly and with ease. It is marked by its dignified slowness, careful articulation and impressive resonance on the most important communicative centres and properly rhythmically organized. Of course, it is not always uniformly so. There are speakers who usually vary the registers to achieve greater effectiveness. • The speakers are usually very enthusiastic about what they say, so they may go to extremes by increasing the loudness, whisper or suddenly interrupt the phonation by using the rhetorical silence. These and other prosodic contrasts produce great effects and captivate attention and interest of the listener. • There are other spheres of discourse – spontaneous speeches at meetings, debates, after dinner speeches, speeches at anniversaries, prize-giving speeches and so on. They will differ greatly on the prosodic level, but the volitional function of intonation will always be in the foreground and mark the publicistic style.

(10) 4. Declamatory style. Artistic reading 5. 3. 5. This phonetic style is also called artistic or stage. It is a highly emotional and expressive style which needs special training. This phonetic style is used on the stage, in films or in prose and poetry recitations. It is always a written form of the language read aloud or recited. • The prosodic organization of such texts depend on the type of theatrical performance – whether it is a tragedy, drama or comedy, the style of the author, etc. • Recitation of prose and poetry has always been regarded as an art. Intonation properties of the text read out loud depend on the type of the written text. It is necessary before reading aloud to appreciate the written text. For this one should firstly read the passage carefully. After reading a prose passage carefully one should consider the general meaning, detailed meaning, intentions of the writer and stylistic devices used in the text.

(11) cont. • The next step is to break the text into phonopassages that may not coincide with the written passages. Then the passage should be split into phrases, the latter intonation groups. The most important procedure is to choose the appropriate prosodic features in order to express the meaning effectively. • Most literary texts comprise descriptions, narrations and dialogues. • Prosodic organization depends on the type of the literary text – descriptive, narrative, dialogue; on the character of the described events (humorous, tragic, romantic, dreamy, etc. ) and on the skills of the reader. • Artistic reading is clearly marked by its expressiveness, personal involvement of the author, emphasis, by the entire range of prosodic and paralinguistic effects. All this is felt through skillful reading.

(12) 5. Conversational style 5. 3. 6. Conversational style, or informal style, occurs in natural spontaneous, everyday speech. It is the most commonly used phonetic style and it is familiar to the vast majority of English-speaking people. That is why it is called familiar. It is a means of everyday communication and interaction between speakers. It is generally called conversational. Some scholars call it informal, because it occurs mainly in informal relationships in the speech of relatives, friends and the like. It is also known as a vernacular style, but its variations depend on the social background of speakers. In conversational style the emotional reaction to the speech signals is very important so the attitudinal function of intonation here comes to the fore. In conversation we do not just listen to words we derive the meaning from a number of communicative systems , and a lift of an eyebrow, a twitch of the mouth, or a silence tell us more than a dozen sentences. However, the verbal part of communication plays a very important but it’s linked with other effective ways contributed by the speakers.

(13) cont. - 1 Spontaneous, colloquial, informal conversations display certain common linguistic characteristics. (1) Firstly, such talks rely very much upon the context, kinesics (non-verbal system of communication, e. g. mimics, body movements, etc. ), etc. E. g. Jane: “Well… maybe, but… take responsibility…. ” Brenda: “No, but do you have your… your colleagues at work …” • Sometimes the speakers even abrupt the speech suddenly, become silent but listeners understand them, catch the meaning because the participants have a common personal background, e. g. Richard: Well, I’m going tonight in fact. Jane: Tonight? Oh, are you? Richard: Yes, most nights really. (2) Secondly, conversations are often unpredictable. It is the most changeable variety of the language. However, there are semantic blocks that are commonly repeated, e. g. exchange of greetings, polite formulas for attracting attention, requesting, agreeing, and so on. (3) The third feature is characterized as “non-fluency”. Entire range of vocalic clusters, sounds, non-verbal signals are common in conversations, e. g. mmm, sshh, ah, brr, etc. Also one can hear whistles, laughs, giggles, etc.

(14) cont. - 2 • On the grammatical level: 1. parenthetic compound types of sentence are common introduced by “you see, you know, I mean, I say” and others; 2. frequent use of interrogative sentences; 3. informal you is quite common in its impersonal function; 4. a great number of question tags; 5. use of repetitions, even very can be repeated several times; 6. occurrence of contracted verbal forms (he’s, I’ll, I’ve). Ø The most noticeable aspect of everyday conversations is their vocabulary. It is characterized by colloquial idioms, use of simple words, avoidance of phraseology, use of words and phrases specific for conversations, e. g. Yeah. Right. OK. Oh, yes. Yes, yes. Oh, lovely. Oh, dear. Alright. Sure. Good heavens! Thanks! Jolly good! Really? Oh, no! Hey! and others.

• o o • (15) cont. - 3 On the prosodic level conversations fall into coordinated blocks tied up within the length of pauses, speed, rhythm, pitch ranges, pitch levels and loudness. intonation groups are rather short, stress is decentralized sudden jumps and downs become characteristic the heads are usually level, even falling occur but only in groups consisting of several stressed syllables as for nuclei, simple falling and rising tones are common; emphatic tones occur in highly emotional contexts; high pre-nuclear syllables are very frequent The tempo of colloquial speech is very varied. The natural speed might be very fast but the impression of “slowness” may arise because of a great number of hesitation pauses within the block. However, the speakers very often speak without pauses, simultaneously, interrupt each other. Silence is frequent. Tempo is very flexible in this style. It is uneven with and between utterances.

(16) Summary Phonetic units undergo various changes under the influence of extralinguistic factors. The extra-linguistic situation determines the choice of language means, phonetic means in particular. Phonostylistics is a branch of phonetics which studies the way phonetic units are used in particular extra-linguistic situations. Purpose is the most important factor that guides the communication. Participants are people involved in communication. Speech is a marker of characteristics of people: age, gender, family background, occupation, social roles. The scene (setting) can be: public – private, formal – informal, monologue – dialogue – polilogue. Communication can be face-to-face, telephone, mass media. Extra-linguistic factors determining the choice of phonetic means: • purpose or aim of communication; • degree of formality of the situation; • the degree of spontaneity; • the speakers attitude. Ø The purpose, or aim of communication is a style forming factor, while all others cause modifications within a particular style. All the factors are interdependent and interconnected.

(17) cont. Stylistic variations of sounds and intonation result from different extralinguistic factors. Stylistic modifications of sounds are caused primarily by the degree of formality. Variations of intonation are basically determined by the aim of communication. In formal situations pronunciation tends to be careful and is characterized by articulatory precision. In informal situations speech is generally faster and less careful. In fast colloquial speech the processes of simplification take place: assimilation, reduction, elision. Each of the five phonetic styles – (1) Informational; (2) Academic (scientific); (3) Publicistic (oratorial); (4) Declamatory (artistic); (5) Conversational (familiar) – is used in a particular sphere of discourse and is characterized by a set of prosodic features, which in their combination form the model of the phonetic style.