the three headed monster Varro In

“the three headed monster” Varro

In ancient Rome, a triumvirate was a committee of three officials for all types of purposes Amicitae suggested both personal and political friendships for mutual advantage. They could change throughout one’s career and were often sealed by marriages

Although triumviratus was an official term, the First Triumvirate was a private agreement. Its members did not have a positive agenda but sought to pool their respective sources of power in order to dominate the Senate.

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT After the consulship of Crassus and Pompey Rome became far more settled both politically and militarily. Both consuls retired into private life and the senate was once again able to take up its primary position within the state. The question still remained as to how they would cope with any future problems. They had placed themselves in a very dangerous position towards the end of the 70’s BC and had narrowly avoided paying a heavy price. Could they avoid doing this again? The populares, however, had not been extinguished as a political force. As long as there were enormous benefits to be gained from holding public office and the competition remained as fierce and as one sided as it was there was always going to be number of individuals willing to use the tribunate to get what they wanted.

The Eastern Command exposes a contradiction in Roman politics, whereby Pompey, in the process of serving Rome’s interests, became an increasing threat to the state itself

The return of Pompey With the Catilinarian conspiracy coming to an end Pompey, who was drawing things to a close in the East, began to look after his interests in Rome. A tribune Nepos, acting for Pompey, proposed that Pompey should be summoned back to tackle Catiline and to be able to stand for the consulship in absentia. Nepos was opposed by other tribunes and despite rioting in Rome in favour of the bill the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum and the bill was thwarted. By the end of 62 with Pompey’s return the political situation in Rome was in the balance. Cicero was hoping that he could draw the factions of Rome together, events were to prove otherwise.

Upon Pompey’s return from the East he would need to get land to settle his veterans. This was important if he was to be able to use them as clients in the future. Crassus knew this and in 64 through the tribune Rullus proposed an agrarian bill which was to set up a commission of ten (a decemviri) to buy up land establish colonies for a period of 5 years. The agrarian bill would also be popular with the unemployed people of Rome who no doubt hoped to gain increased access to corn if not the land itself. Either way Crassus hoped to gain an important political bargaining tool in the event of Pompey’s return. Once again Cicero spoke against the measure and Rullus withdrew the measure. Crassus had been thwarted again.

Pompey turns populares Pompey’s position was about to change and the cause can be found with the attitude and actions of the small optimates faction within the senate itself. Firstly Pompey was rejected by Cato (a prominent optimate) when he suggested that he should marry one of his relations. Then his proposed eastern settlement wasn’t ratified by the senate neither did the senate agree to provide land for his veterans. Essentially his requests weren’t unreasonable but would certainly have consolidated his power if not actually give him anymore.

Pompey therefore turned to a tribune Flavius to propose a bill that would settle his veterans. Although there was some senatorial opposition the bill was eventually passed but the senate’s opposition had shown Pompey that the senate was not necessarily on his side and had forced him to take populares measures. Despite Pompey’s turn to the populares the senate continued in the defence of their own vested interests.

Crassus and Caesar were natural political allies if not natural friends. Caesar had already made a bit of a name for himself in the law courts and by supporting various bits of legislation that were of a populares nature (Scullard pg 95&96). Crassus on the other hand had the influence and, perhaps more importantly, the wealth to promote his own interests as well as those of others (including Caesar). With Pompey away (from 67 onwards) Crassus began to involve himself more actively in Roman politics for his own interests. The problem in Roman politics is that from now on individuals are playing politics for their own interests against those of the state.

Crassus’ initial steps were tentative although certainly showed his openly populares character. Crassus was almost certainly involved in the Catilinarian conspiracy, which began in 65 BC, in with wealth, influence and troops if necessary. Crassus needed to counter balance this. Crassus, however, need more practical bargaining chips if he was to oppose Pompey in the future. His first step was to gain a wider client base, in particular in the provinces. If Pompey was successful in the East then he would certainly return with an incredibly wide client base that would provide him

Crassus’ Motive Spain: Initially Crassus arranged through his patronage to have Calpurnius Piso sent tp Spain as quaestor propraetore. Unfortunately he was killed soon after his arrival. Gaul: Crassus, as Censor, then proposed that the transpandane Gauls should once more receive full citizenship. Opposed by his optimate colleague Catulus the measure was not carried but he would certainly have gained their support (Scullard pg 104).

Egypt: At some point around 65/4 BC Crassus then used a tribune who proposed the annexation of Egypt with the supposed intention of sending Caesar out to administer the process. Egypt would have provided an even better military base against Pompey but would more importantly put Crassus in control of a vast supply of corn with which he could bribe the masses and win over the equites. The Optimates naturally opposed the measure and Cicero, who was still representing Pompey’s interests, spoke against the measure and was no doubt instrumental in its defeat. Crassus, despite being thwarted at every step buy the optimates, continued to try and gain more power and influence. This time, however, the steps he takes are more linked to the threat of Pompey than the threat of the optimates

Caesar was also increasingly active. As Aedile of 65 he had stage magnificent games (no doubt with the help of Caesar’s money). He also gained the post of Pontifex Maximus (again almost certainly with the help of Crassus) Caesar was also active in the law courts prosecuting a number of optimates (although he was defeated by Cicero he would have gained some popular support) (Scullard pg 108).

Pompey was in a position to take control in Rome in the mode of Sulla but while Rome waited in anticipation Pompey merely disbanded his troops and returned to Rome as a private citizen. The senate now had a chance to settle the delicate situation in Rome instead they managed to push the populares Pompey, Crassus and Caesar closer together. Crassus was once again thwarted by the optimates when he proposed that a harsh tax bargain should be redrafted. Although a fairly bold request it was not completely unreasonable but would certainly have cemented Crassus’ popularity with the equites. Pompey, at this point, was still essentially on the side of republican government. If not totally committed to the Optimates he was by no means a populares either.

Cicero to Atticus, mid-to-late December, 60 BCE (Letters to Atticus 2. 3. 3 -4): “I have had a visit from Cornelius —Balbus, I mean, Caesar’s intimate. He assured me that Caesar will follow my and Pompey’s advice in all things and will try to bring Pompey and Crassus together. This course presents the following advantages: intimate association with Pompey, with Caesar too, if I want it, reconciliation with my enemies, peace with the populace, tranquillity in my old age. ”

Caesar’s Motive the 60 BC having Caesar was also returning to Rome in been governor in Spain the previous year. He was due a triumph but also wanted to stand for the consulship of 59 BC but as a commander of an army he wasn’t allowed to enter the city until the day of his triumph. He consequently asked the senate to be allowed to stand for the consulship in absentia. This was not unprecedented but considering Caesar’s previous career it is not surprising that the senate declined his request. Their decision, however, was short-sighted and naturally drove Caesar, Crassus and Pompey closer together to the extent that in 60 BC the three formed a secret amicitia to work for their mutual interests.

“Cato was devoted to the public but the public that counted was Cato’s own class, the hereditary nobility. Today the Cato Institute…is named after the man because he resisted Caesar’s rule and supposedly championed liberty. Needless to say, the narrow class nature of that liberty remains unacknowledged by Cato’s admirers. ” Michael Parenti “rigid justice that will not bend a clemency or favor” Cicero

Together the three had the support of: The Equites (Crassus) The urban populace (Caesar and Pompey) Military backing (Pompey) As such they could impose their will on the senate as they wished. To achieve their aims they needed someone with actual political power so Caesar finally got his wish of the consulship and was duly elected to the post of 59 BC. “ A conspiracy against the state by its three leading citizens”. Livy

Caesar was able to manipulate the other members of the triumvirate in order to serve his own purposes. Caesar gained the most from his participation in the first triumvirate out of the three men. He gained a consulship through the use of Crassus’s financial support, and Pompey’s popularity. Caesar was also able to maintain a very successful pro-consulship where he gained both military glory and a lot of wealth. The other members of the Triumvirate assisted him in this by acting on his behalf back in Rome, for a time at least. He also gained a triumph through his pro-consulship in Gaul. The continued and growing enmity of Pompey and Crassus in Rome, acting through their agents , Milo and Clodius, forced Caesar to mediate at Luca in 56 BC. Whether their enmity was as extreme as ancient sources suggest is debatable. Marshall sees it as merely typical “aristocratic rivalry”.

“ A conspiracy against the state by its three leading citizens. ” Livy " A city like a ship, can gain stability from opposed forces which together prevent it rocking. . . but now these forces were united into one and there was nothing to stop the movement of violent part interest from overthrowing everything. . . the first disaster and the worst had been, not the quarrel and split between Caesar and Pompey, but the friendship and harmony that had existed between them. " Plutarch Pompey " Thus the three for these reasons formed their friendship and ratified it with oaths, and then managed public affairs among themselves. Next they gave to each other and received in turn one from another, whatever they set their hearts on and whatever it suited them to do in view of the circumstances” Cassius Dio

"By uncompromising refusal to meet the demands of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus the senate naturally drove them into each others arms. The three men agreed to form a political amicitia. . . " Scullard Technically it had been a master stroke to break the deadlock and bring Crassus and Pompey together. This move had robbed the Cato faction of the opportunity to paralyse the main actors by playing one off against the other. ” Luciano Canfora 2007

What differences do we see between ancient and modern views of the Triumvirate? ? ? ? ? “The inertia at the heart of the Republic was alienating many citizens at all levels of society…. . With hindsight many would see 60 BC as the year when the disease infecting the Republic became terminal. ” Adrian Goldsworthy “ In view of its( Senate) weaknesses did it not need all the help it could get. If the res publica was in danger, was not an alliance with Pompey an obvious precaution? And did it really make any sense to pursue such a petty policy towards Caesar. ” Christian Meier