The Semantic Structure of English Words Plan

The Semantic Structure of English Words

Plan: 1. Word-meaning as a controversial linguistic problem. Types of wordmeaning. 2. Polysemy. Meaning and context. Componential analysis.

• F. de Saussure • L. Bloomfield • R. Jakobson

Ø Semantics or semasiology (Greek) sēmasiā ‘signification’ (from sēma ‘sign’ sēmantikos ‘significant’) logos ‘learning’.

Meaning Ø is a component of the word through which a concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with the ability of denoting real objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions.

Ø the referential Ø the functional approach. Ø It seeks to formulate the Ø It studies the functions essence of meaning by of a word in speech and establishing the is less concerned with interdependence what meaning is than between words and the with how it works. things or concepts they denote.

The Referential Approach 1. the sound-form of the linguistic sign, 2. the concept underlying the sound-form, 3. the actual referent.

The Semantic Triangle of Ogden and Richards concept sound-form [kæt] referent

The Functional Approach Ø studies the functions of a word in speech, and is much more concerned with how meaning works. Ø Ex. : to teach - to teach a child, a teacher -a teacher of Maths, a gifted teacher.

in the functional approach 1. semantic investigation is confined to the analysis of the difference or sameness of meaning; 2. meaning is understood essentially as the function of the use of linguistic units.

TYPES OF WORD-MEANING Lexical Part-of-Speech Grammatical (Lexico-Grammatical)

Grammatical Meaning Ø the meaning proper to sets of word forms common to all words of a certain class. Ø Ex. : ASKED, THOUGHT, GAVE, DID, BORED; GIRL`S, TODAY’S, MAN’S; PARENTS, TABLES, PLACES.

Part-of-Speech Meaning Ø is the common denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexicogrammatical class of words. • team • management a group of people…. • chorus

Lexical Meaning Ø the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions Ø Ex. : TEACH, TEACHES, IS TEACHING, TAUGHT

Components of Lexical Meaning Connotational component Denotational component Pragmatic Component

The Denotational Component Ø is the part of lexical meaning which establishes correlation between the name and the object, phenomenon, process or characteristic feature of reality, which is denoted by the given word.

Denotative components notorious Connotative components widely + for criminal acts Evaluative or bad traits of connotation, known character celebrated widely known negative Evaluative + for special achievement in connotation, science, art, etc. positive to glare to look + steadily, 1. Connotation lastingly in of duration 2. anger, rage, etc. Emotive connotation Connotation of + briefly, passingly duration to glance to look

The Connotational Component • is capable to evoke or directly express emotion. Connotational Component Emotive charge Expressiveness Evaluation Stylistic Reference

POLYSEMY Ø the ability of words to have more than one meaning

Diachronically Ø Polysemy is a historical change in the semantic structure of the word resulting in disappearance of some meanings and in new meanings being added to those already existing and also in the rearrangement of these meanings in its semantic structure.

Synchronically Ø Polysemy is understood as co-existence of the various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period and the arrangement of these meanings in the semantic structure of the word.

Meaning Primary meaning Secondary meaning

Fire, n. Primary meaning II. An instance of destructive burning; e. g. a forest fire. I. Flame III. Burning material in a stove, fireplace, etc. ; e. g. There is a fire in the next room. A camp fire. IV. The shooting of guns, etc. ; e. g. to open (cease) fire. Secondary meanings V. Strong feeling, passion, enthusiasm; e. g. a speech lacking fire

Polysemy and Context Ø context is the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word.

Context linguistic (or verbal) contexts lexical context grammatical context extra-linguistic (nonverbal) contexts. • (context of the situation) Ex. : - Bill is large • Glasses • Ring

Lexical Context Ø Groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration. Ø Ex. : heavy - ‘of great weight, weighty’ heavy bag - ‘falling with force’, heavy rain, wind, snow -‘the larger kind of something’ heavy industry, arms, artillery. . .

Grammatical Context Ø The grammatical (syntactic)structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. Ø Ex. : make 1)‘to force, to enduce’, - to make somebody do something; 2) ‘to become’, ‘to turn out to be’ is observed in the contexts of a different structure, i. e. make followed by an adjective and a noun (to make a good wife, a good teacher, etc. ).

Componential analysis of meaning Ø linguistic analysis of the semantic structure of a word (a monosemantic word or a lexicosemantic variant [LSV] of a polysemantic unit) as constituted by a set of minimal elements of sense – semes.

Ø Seme (same as Sememe, Semantic component) is a minimal unit of sense, an 'atom' of lexical semantics, distinguished on the basis of oppositions by methods applied in componential analysis.

Ø Father = • Human - • Adult - • Male - • Parent - semes

1) Componential analysis is very popular in linguistics; it shows heterogeneity, complexity of lexical meaning. 2) Componential analysis helps to differentiate between words (especially between synonyms). 3) Componential analysis helps to explain semantic derivation (metaphor, metonymy, etc. ) 4) Componential analysis helps to create the so called language of semantic primitives – minimal units of sense.

The Shortcomings of the Method: Ø The discovery procedures for semantic features are not clearly objectifiable. Ø Only part of the vocabulary can be described through more or less structured sets of features. Ø Metalinguistic features are expressed through language again. Ø Features used may not have clear definitions. Ø Limited in focus and mechanical in style.

LECTURE 6 SEMANTIC CHANGE Plan: 1. Nature and causes of semantic change. 2. Types of semantic change. Linguistic metaphor and linguistic metonymy.

Semantic Change Development of meaning Change of meaning §branch - the part of the tree that grows out from its trunk subject of knowledge §snail - a small animal moving very slowly a slow person Fond =foolish loving

Ø development of meaning is the process of semantic extension when a new meaning and an old one coexist in the semantic structure of the word.

Ø Change of meaning is the process of semantic extension resulting in complete replacement of the old meaning of a word by the new one.

CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE linguistic extra-linguistic 1. Discrimination of synonyms; 2. Linguistic analogy; 3. Ellipsis. Changes in the life of the speech community (political, economical, social…)

• CAR CARRUS (Latin) • Pen PENNA(Latin)

Main linguistic factors causing semantic change 1. DIFFERENTIATION OF SYNONYMS is a gradual change observed in the course of language history. • OE Meat = food – anything that nourishes • ME meat – edible flesh / food – anything that nourishes. • LAND- OE- l. solid part of earth's surface; 2. the territory of a nation • COUNTRY - OFr- CONTREE was borrowed into ME as the synonym of LAND the meaning of the word LAND was changed and COUNTRY meant only territory of a nation

2. LINGUISTIC ANALOGY( if one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning other members of this set change their meaning too. ): • to catch -> to understand (- to grasp - to get). 3. ELLIPSIS (when one of two words comprising the phrase is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. ): • a rifle < rifle gun • a pipe < tobacco pipe • minerals < mineral water • moving pictures

Nature of Semantic Change Linguistic metaphor Linguistic metonymy the similarity of meanings • Ex. : DROP hand (a hand of the clock) the contiguity of meaning • Ex. : China, martini, • a Picasso • a jersey

RESULTS OF SEMANTIC CHANGE in the changes of the denotational meaning restriction in the changes of the connotational component amelioration extension deterioration

Ø Restriction (narrowing or specialization) of meaning is the type of semantic change when a word which formerly represented a notion of a broader scope has come to render a notion of a narrow scope. Ø fowl in OE - any bird, Mn. E - a domestic hen or cock.

Ø Extension (generalisation or broadening ) is the application of the word to a wider variety of referents. Ø Ex. : target; manuscript.

Ø Deterioration of meaning (degradation, degeneration, pejorative development, ) is the acquisition by a word of some derogatory emotive charge. Ø Ex. : knave

Ø Amelioration of meaning (elevation) is the acquisition by a word a better social attitude to the object or phenomenon named. Ø Ex. : minister.

• Gossip: godparent, close friend someone who likes talking about other people's private lives - used to show disapproval • Fond: foolish loving, affectionate. • Nice: foolish fine, good. • Knight: manservant? a man with a high rank in the past who was trained to fight while riding a horse • Marshal an officer of the highest rank in the army or air force of some countries

• Lord – breadkeeper, master of the house a man who has a rank in the aristocracy, especially in Britain, or his title • Lady – bread+ the one who kneads used as the title of the wife or daughter of a British nobleman or the wife of a knight • Queen – woman queen • Spinster – OE a woman spinning some cloth, an unmarried woman (which is considered bad from the social point of view. • Poison – (borrowing from Latin) – some kind of drink

HOMONYMY Ø Homonyms are words identical in sound form, spelling but different in meaning, distribution and in many cases in origin. Ø ‘homos’ – similar Ø ‘onoma’ – name Ø Ex. : bank, n. — a shore; bank, n. — an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging, and safeguarding money; ball, n. — a sphere; any spherical body; ball, n. — a large dancing party.

The PUN • FIT - perfectly fitting clothes; • FIT - a nervous spasm: • A tailor guarantees to give each of his customers a perfect fit. • We eat what we can, what we can't eat we can. • Is life worth living? It depends upon the liver.

SOURCES OF HOMONYMS convergent sound development divergent meaning development • the process when 2 or more words of different origin accidentally coincide in sound. Ex. : knight - night rite[ritus Lat] – write – right, match – match. • the process when different meanings of the same word move so far from each other that they come to be regarded as two separate words (split polysemy). Ex: spring.

HOMONYMS homographs homonyms proper homophones

Ø Homonyms proper are words identical in pronunciation and spelling (back, ball, bark, pit). Ø Homophones are words of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning (airheir, arms- alms, buy - by, piece -peace). Ø Homographs are words different in sound and in meaning but identical in spelling (bow [bou], - bow - [bau], lead, v. – lead, n. , tear, v. – tear, n. ).

Lecture 7 SYNONYMY AND SYNONYMS

Plan: 1. Syntagmatic & paradigmatic relationships in linguistics Definition of synonyms. Sources of synonyms in English. 2. Classifications of synonyms. Synonymic dominant.

Linguistic relationships syntagmatic the semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. paradigmatic the word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system.

Ø the hat on her head - the head of the department, Ø head (1) - the part of the body; Ø head (2) - a chief

words of similar meaning (e. g. to work - to labour; to refuse - to reject - to decline ), Øof opposite meaning (e. g. busy - idle; to accept - to reject), Øof different stylistic characteristics (e. g. man - chap - guy). Ø

Ø Synonyms are considered as words different in sound but 1) identical or 2) similar in meaning.

Ø abnormal adj. 1 deviant, deviating, irregular, unusual, unconventional, aberrant, Psych jargon exceptional: The wing of a bat is an abnormal structure. 2 peculiar, unusual, odd, strange, queer, freakish, unnatural, extraordinary, weird, eccentric, bizarre, anomalous, aberrant, perverse, deviant, irregular, Colloq offbeat, Slang oddball, kinky, weirdo.

lack n. 1 want, deficiency, dearth, absence, scarcity, shortage, need, insufficiency, paucity, deficit, inadequacy: We suffered from a severe lack of water. The orchestra is experiencing a serious lack of talent at the moment.

R. Z. Ginzburg Synonyms − words different in sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts

CRITERIA OF SYNONYMY 1. Notional criterion Øsynonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics

2. Semantic criterion Øwords with the same denotation, but different in connotative components

Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary Denotation Connotations to chuckle to laugh to giggle to laugh to snigger to laugh to titter to laugh to guffaw to laugh in a quiet way with closed mouth in a nervous and silly way in a half-supressed way silly and halfsuppressed little laugh a noisy laugh

3. Interchangeability Øit is sufficient to choose any set of synonyms placing them in a simple context to demonstrate the point

hide − conceal − secrete (v. ) He hid the money (He prevented it from being seen, put it out of sight) He concealed the money (He hid it carefully) He secreted the money (He hid it in the secret place)

• The storm was abnormal/exceptional. • But: he was abnormal≠ exceptional.

Ø Synonyms may be defined as 2 or more words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical denotational meanings, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable change in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style.

SOURCES OF SYNONYMY 1. Borrowings 8000 synonymic groups

The native word The borrowed word qthe native word is usually neutral or colloquial qthe borrowed word is bookish, abstruse or highly literary Freedom bodily brotherly Liberty corporal, fraternal

Triple-scale of synonyms: Native English to ask French Latin to question belly stomach to interrogate abdomen to end to finish to complete to rise to mount to ascend

1. a. Radiation of synonyms. • overlook • oversee

2. National, regional and local variants of the language American English British English gimmick trick dues subscription long distance call trunk call radio wireless

• autumn - fall(am. E); • lift - elevator(Am. E); • girl - lass(Sc).

3. Word-forming processes a) new combinations of verbs with postpositives (phrasal verbs): choose − pick out continue − go on enter − come in b) set expressions: laugh − give a laugh sigh − give a sigh smoke − have a smoke love − fall in love

c) shortening: memorandum − memo vegetables − vegs margarine − marge microphone − mike popular (song) − pop (song) d) affixation: anxiety − anxiousness effective − effectiveness loss of affixes: await − wait

EUPHEMISMS Øwords or phrases used to replace a harsh, obscene, indelicate or unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more accepted one.

to avoid a direct confrontation with topics that are embarrassing, frightening, or uncomfortable: God, the devil, sex, death, money, war, crime «a whitewashing device»

drunk merry, intoxicated, under the influence, tipsy, mellow, fresh, high, flustered, overcome, full, drunk as a lord, drunk as an owl, boiled, fried, tanked, tight, stiff, pickled, soaked, three sheets to the wind, high as a kite

naked − in one’s birthday suit pregnant − in the family way, in an interesting condition, in a delicate condition, with a baby coming, with child, expecting

mad Ø insane, mentally unstable, unbalanced, unhinged, not (quite) right, not all there, off one’s head, off one’s rocker, wrong in the upper storey, having bats in one’s belfry, crazy as a bedbug, cuckoo, nutty, off one’s nut, loony, a mental case, a mental defective

THE SYNONYMIC DOMINANT most synonymic groups have a «central» word whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group the synonymic dominant is the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information

choose − select − pick − cull − elect glad − joyful − joyous − happy − cheerful − light-hearted imagination − fancy − fantasy hope− anticipate − expect work − toil − drudgery − labour − grind − job − task

Characteristic features of the synonymic dominant: Ø high frequency of usage Ø broad combinability Ø broad general meaning Ø lack of connotations

Synonymic dominant & hyperonym Ø Hyperonym serves as the name for the notion of the genus as distinguished from the names of species − hyponyms synonymy is symmetrical a is a synonym of b, b is the synonym of a hyponymy is asymmetrical a is a hyponym of b, b is the hyperonym of a

Inclusion. Hyponymic Structures. Hyperonym Flower rose daisy daffodil Hyponyms snowdrop

TYPES OF SYNONYMS I. Classification established by the famous Russian scholar V. V. Vinogradov

a) ideographic synonyms words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning

ØThey denote the same thing, but they are different in the denotational aspect of their meanings and their interchange would result in a slight change of the phrase they are used in: change − alter − vary understand − realize forest − wood apartment − flat shape − form

b) stylistic synonyms differing in stylistic characteristics hearty − cordial imitate − monkey terrible − horrible − atrocious

c) absolute synonyms coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics furze − gorse − whin (утёсник обыкновенный) noun − substantive functional affix − inflection

R. Z. Ginzburg There are no complete synonyms: if two words are phonemically different then their meanings are also different

II. contextual or context-dependent synonyms • are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread I’ll go to the shop and get some bread stand bear I can’t stand = I can’t bear

III. Classification of synonyms according to connotations by which synonyms differ (Antrushina) a) the connotation of degree or intensity: to surprise − to astonish − to amaze − to astound to like − to admire − to love − to adore − to worship b) the connotation of duration to stare − to glare − to gaze − to glance − to peep − to peer to flash (brief) − to blaze (lasting) to shudder (brief) − to shiver (lasting) to say (brief) − to speak, to talk (lasting)

c) the emotive connotation to stare (in surprise) − to glare (in anger) − to gaze (in tenderness) (alone - single - lonely - solitary )

d) the evaluative connotation well-known − famous − notorious − celebrated to produce − to create − to manufacture − to fabricate e) the causative connotation to shiver (from a chill) − to shudder (with fear, horror) to blush (from modesty) − to redden (from anger)

f) the connotation of manner to stroll − to stride − to trot − to pace − to swagger − to stumble g) the connotation of attendant circumstances to peep (through a hole, opening) to peer (in darkness, through the fog)

i) stylistic connotations snack, bite (coll. ) snap (dial. ) repast, refreshment, feast (formal)

TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS Proximity Equivalence Inclusion Opposition

Proximity • • Beautiful Pretty Handsome Attractive Good-looking…

Equivalence • John is taller than Jim = Jim is shorter than John. • She lives in Paris = • She lives in the capital of France

Opposition • Black – white • Rich – poor • To arrive – to leave.

ANTONYMY E. M. Dubenetz Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions

Antonyms are usually believed to appear in pairs: storm − calm beginning − ending up − down glorious − shameful drunkenness − soberness white − black

**Antonyms represent the language’s important expressive means **often used as a stylistic device of contrast A man is known by the company he keeps. A woman is known by the company she keeps out of (O. Wilde) Знание человека возвышает, а невежество унижает

2. ANTONYMY AND POLYSEMY Different meanings of a word may have different antonyms: dull interesting, amusing, entertaining (deficient in interest) clever, bright, capable (deficient in intellect) active (deficient in activity)

4. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTONYMS 1. according to the morphological principle absolute or root derivational late − early right − wrong love − hate to please − to displease known − unknown useful − useless

2. according to the underlying logical categories 1. Contradictories 2. Contraries 3. Incompatibles

1. Contradictories are mutually opposed and denying one another (J. Lyons and L. Lipka call them complementary antonyms): alive − dead impatient − patient single − married perfect − imperfect male − female

2. Contraries are also mutually opposed but they are gradable (J. Lyons calls such words antonyms proper): hot − warm− cool − cold beautiful − simple − ugly old − middle-aged − young

3. Incompatibles • relations of exclusion but not of contradiction • morning is to say not afternoon, not evening, not night • The negation of one member does not imply semantic equivalence with the other but excludes the possibility of the other words of this set red entails the exclusion of black, blue, yellow

5. CONVERSIVES words denoting one and the same referent or situation as viewed from different points of view buy − sell give − receive teacher − student host − guest give − take ancestor − descendant parent − child left − right cause − suffer