The New Imperialism Daniel W. Blackmon AP European History Coral Gables Senior High
• • • Darwin and Social Darwinism Spokesmen for Imperialism Critics of Imperialism Interpretations of Imperialism Africa Asia
Charles Darwin (1809 -1882) • The Origin of Species (1859) • The Descent of Man (1871),
Darwin • "survival of the fittest. " • Natural Selection
Darwin • Process in response to the environment is the key to Darwin's theory. • For a Darwinist, reality is never static; it is always dynamic.
Darwin • With Darwin providing the impetus, science becomes the dominant mode of thought.
Darwin • Darwin places Man firmly among the animals--more successful perhaps, or more intelligent, but still an animal, the product of a long process of evolution from continuously simpler organisms.
Darwin • This view appears to contradict the traditional Christian view that Man is the special creation of God, endowed with a soul which distinguishes him from all other creatures
Darwin • If Man is indeed descended from the apes, then all philosophies which base the rights of Man upon a deity or upon inherent rights collapses. • One must either find another basis for rights (such as the State) or deny that Man has inherent rights.
Darwin • Since the universe is a disorderly jostling chaos without purpose or design, then the basis of all values is undermined.
Darwin • The search for meaning, especially a meaning which the individual imposes upon the world, will be a prominent feature of 20 th century politics.
Social Darwinism • Herbert Spencer (1820 -1903) • Conflict is good in itself, and progress is achieved only through struggle, whether the competition is between individuals, corporations, nations, or races
Herbert Spenser: Survival of the Fittest • “Pervading all nature we may see at work a stern discipline, which is a little cruel that it may be very kind.
Herbert Spenser: Survival of the Fittest • That state of universal warfare maintained throughout the lower creation, to the great perplexity of many worthy people, is at bottom the most merciful provision which the circumstances admit of.
Herbert Spenser: Survival of the Fittest • “The poverty of the incapable, the distresses that come upon the imprudent, the starvation of the idle, and those shoulderings aside of the weak by the strong, which leave so many "in shallows and in miseries, " are the decrees of a large, farseeing benevolence.
Herbert Spenser: Survival of the Fittest • “. It seems hard that an unskilfulness which with all its efforts he cannot overcome, should entail hunger upon the artisan. It seems hard that a labourer incapacitated by sickness from competing with his stronger fellows, should have to bear the resulting privations.
Herbert Spenser: Survival of the Fittest • “It seems hard that widows and orphans should be left to struggle for life or death. Nevertheless, when regarded not separately, but in connection with the interests of universal humanity, these harsh fatalities are seen to be full of the highest beneficence--
Herbert Spenser: Survival of the Fittest • “. the same beneficence which brings to early graves the children of diseased parents, and singles out the low_spirited, the intemperate, and the debilitated as the victims of an epidemic. ”
William Graham Sumner • "We can find no sentiment in whatever in nature; that all comes from man. We can find no disposition at all in nature to conform her operations to man's standards, so as to do what is pleasant or advantageous to man rather than anything else.
William Graham Sumner • “Before the tribunal of nature a man has no more right to life than a rattlesnake. He has no more right to liberty than any wild beast;
William Graham Sumner • “his right to the pursuit of happiness is nothing but a license to maintain the struggle for existence if he can find within himself the power with which to do it. "
Lord Alfred Milner, (1854 -1925) • "This country must remain a Great Power or she will become a poor country; and those who in seeking, as they are most right to seek, social improvement are tempted to neglect national strength, are simply building their house upon sand. "
Friedrich von Bernhardi • War is a biological necessity of the first importance, a regulative element in the life of mankind which cannot be dispensed with,
Friedrich von Bernhardi • since without it an unhealthy development will follow, which excludes every advancement of the race, and therefore all real civilization. .
Friedrich von Bernhardi • “The struggle for existence is, in the life of Nature, the basis of all healthy development. . . So in the life of man the struggle is not merely the destructive, but the life-giving principle. .
Friedrich von Bernhardi • “Struggle is, therefore, a universal law of Nature, and the instinct of selfpreservation which leads to struggle is acknowledged to be a natural condition of existence. ‘Man is a fighter. ’ “
Bernhard von Bülow Speech to the Reichstag, 1899 • “. . . we'll only be able to keep ourselves at the fore if we realize that there is no welfare for us without power, without a strong army and a strong fleet. (Very true! from the right; objections from the left )
Bernhard von Bülow • “The means, gentlemen, for a people of almost 60 million dwelling in the middle of Europe and, at the same time,
Bernhard von Bülow • “stretching its economic antennae out to all sides to battle its way through in the struggle for existence without strong armaments on land at sea, have not yet been found.
Bernhard von Bülow • (Very true! from the right. ) “In the coming century the German people will be a hammer or an anvil. ”
Modern European Racialism • J. A. de Gobineau (1816 -1882) • Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races • Houston Stewart Chamberlain (18551927),
Racialism: One Englishman’s view • "History shows me one way, and one way only, in which a high state of civilization has been produced, namely the struggle of race with race, and the survival of the physically and mentally fitter race. .
Racialism: One Englishman’s view • ". . This dependence of progress on the survival of the fitter race, terribly black as it may seem to some of you, give the struggle for existence its redeeming features; it is the fiery crucible out of which come the finer metal. "
Gabriele D'Annunzio (18631938) Italian poet and novelist • "I glory in the fact that I am a Latin, and I recognize a barbarian in every man of non-Latin blood. .
Gabriele D'Annunzio [(18631938) Italian poet and novelist • ". . If the Latin races are to preserve themselves, it is time they returned to the healthy prejudice which created the grandeur of Greece and Rome--to believe that all others are barbarians. “
Houston Stewart Chamberlain • ". . . horses and dogs give us every chance of observing that the intellectual gifts go hand in hand with the physical; this is especially true of the moral qualities; a mongrel is frequently very clever, but never reliable; morally, he is always a weed. "
Alfred Milner, (1854 -1925) • "I have emphasized the importance of the racial bond. From my point of view this is fundamental. It is the British race which built the Empire, and it is the undivided British race which can alone uphold it. "
Imperialists: Friedrich Fabri: 1879 • “Should not the German nation, so seaworthy, so industrially and commercially minded, . . . successfully hew a new path on the road of imperialism?
Imperialists: Friedrich Fabri: 1879 • “We are convinced beyond doubt that the colonial question has become a matter of life-or death for the development of Germany.
Imperialists: Friedrich Fabri: 1879 • “Colonies will have a salutary effect on our economic situation as well as on our entire national progress. ”
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “It is impossible not to consider imperialism as one of the tasks imposedon the civilized states for the last four centuries, more particularlyin our own age.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “This state of the world implies for the civilized people a right of intervention. . . in the affairs of the peoples of the last two categories.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “It is neither natural nor just for the civilized people of the West to be cooped up indefinitely and jammed into the restricted spaces which were their first home.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “Nor is it natural and just that they there accumulate the marvels of science, the arts and civilization, that they see the rate of interest fall more each day for lack of good investment opportunities,
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “while they leave perhaps half the world to little groups of ignorant, ineffectual men who are like feeble children. . . or to exhausted populations, without energy, without direction, who may be compared to old men. . . ”
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “Imperialism is often confused with commerce or with the opening of commercial markets. . Imperialism means something quite different from the sale or purchase of commodities.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “It entails a profound action on apeople and a territory, providing the inhabitants with some education and regular justice, teaching them the division of labour and the uses of capital when they are ignorant of these things.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “It opens an area not only to the merchandise of the mother country, but to its capital and its savings, to its engineers, to its overseers, to its emigrants. .
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “Such a transformation of a barbarian country cannot be accomplished by simple commercial relations.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “Imperialism is thus the systematic action of an organized people upon another people whose organization is defective, and it presupposes that it is the state itself, and not only some individuals, which is responsible for the mission. .
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “The great value of colonies. . . is not only that they serve to catch the overflow population of the mother country, nor even that they open a particularly reliable area of investment for excess capital,
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “it is also that they give a sharp stimulus to the commerce of the country, that they strengthen and support its industry and furnish to its inhabitants -- industrialists, workers, consumers --a growth of profits, of wages, or of interest). .
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “. . . It is to open the new markets for the sale of products manufactured in Europe, markets more profitable and more expandable than those we have been limited to previously,
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “because the new societies have an ability to grow and to create and accumulate riches infinitely greater than the old societies.
Paul Leroy Beaulieu 1891 • “Thus trade is stimulated and extended, the division of labour is augmented; industry having before it wider openings can and must produce more and such production on a greater scale calls for new improvements and new advances. .
Jules Ferry Chamber of Deputies 1884 • “The policy of colonial expansion is a political and economic system. . . that can be connected to three sets of ideas: economic ideas; the most far_reaching ideas of civilization; and ideas of apolitical and patriotic sort.
Jules Ferry Chamber of Deputies 1884 • “Today, as you know, competition, the law of supply and demand, freedom of trade, the effects of speculation, all radiate in a circle that reaches to the ends of the earth. . That is a great complication, a great economic difficulty
Jules Ferry Chamber of Deputies 1884 • “Gentlemen, we must speak more loudly and more honestly! We must say openly that indeed the higher races have a right over the lower races. .
Jules Ferry Chamber of Deputies 1884 • “I repeat, that the superior races have a right because they have aduty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races. . In the history of earlier centuries these duties, gentlemen, have often been misunderstood;
Jules Ferry Chamber of Deputies 1884 • “and certainly when the Spanish soldiers and explorers introduced slavery into Central America, they did not fulfill their duty as men of a higher race. .
Jules Ferry Chamber of Deputies 1884 • “But, in our time, I maintain that European nations acquit themselves with generosity, with grandeur, and with sincerity of this superior civilizing duty. ”
Kaiser Wilhelm II 1901 • “In spite of the fact that we have no such fleet as we should have, we have conquered for ourselves a place in the sun. It will now be my task to see to it that this place in the sun shall remain our undisputed possession,
Kaiser Wilhelm II 1901 • “in order that the sun's rays may fall fruitfully upon our activity and trade in foreign parts, that our industry and agriculture may develop within the state and our sailing sports upon the water, for our future lies upon the water. ”
Sen. Albert J. Beveridge 1898 • "But today, we are raising more than we can consume. Today we are making more than we can use. Today our industrial society is congested: there are more workers than there is work; there is more capital than there is investment. .
Sen. Albert J. Beveridge 1898 • "Therefore, we must find new markets for our produce, new occupation for our capital, new work for our labor. "
Sen. Albert J. Beveridge 1898 • “As our commerce spreads, the flag of liberty will circle the globe an the highways of the ocean-carrying trade to all mankind--be guarded by the guns of the republic.
Sen. Albert J. Beveridge 1898 • “And as their thunders salute the flag, benighted peoples will know that the voice of liberty is speaking, at last, for them: that civilization is dawning, at last, for them--
Sen. Albert J. Beveridge 1898 • “--liberty and civilization, those children of Christ's gospel, who follow and never precede the preparing march of commerce. ”
Rudyard Kipling (1865 -1936) • The White Man’s Burden “Take up the White Man's burden-Send forth the best ye breed-Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need; To wait in heavy harness On fluttered folk and wild— Half-devil and half-child. ”
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “. . . In Africa, especially in tropical Africa, which a capitalistic imperialism threatens and has, in part, already devastated, man is incapable of reacting against unnatural conditions.
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “. In those regions man is engaged in a perpetual struggle against disease and an exhausting climate, which tells heavily upon child¡bearing; and there is no scientific machinery for salving the weaker members of the community.
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • The African of the tropics is capable of tremendous physical labours. But he cannot accommodate himself to the European system of monotonous, uninterrupted labour, with its long and regular hours,
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “. involving, moreover, as it frequently does, severance from natural surroundings and nostalgia, the condition of melancholy resulting from separation from home, a malady to which the African is specially prone.
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “Climatic conditions forbid it. When the system is forced upon him, the tropical African droops and dies. Nor is violent physical opposition to abuse and injustice henceforth possible for the African in any part of Africa.
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “His chances of effective resistance have been steadily dwindling with the increasing perfectibility in the killing power of modern armament. .
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “Thus the African is really helpless against the material gods of the white man, as embodied in the trinity of imperialism, capitalistic exploitation, and militarism. .
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • To reduce all the varied and picturesque and stimulating episodes in savage life to a dull routine of endless toil for uncomprehended ends, to dislocate social ties and disrupt social institutions; to stifle nascent desires and crush mental development;
Critics: Edward Morel 1903 • “to graft upon primitive passions the annihilating evils of scientific slavery, and the bestial imaginings of civilized man, unrestrained by convention or law; in fine, to kill the soul in a people_this is a crime which transcends physical murder. ”
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • Imperialism, A Study 1902: • financiers wanted expansion and manipulated public opinion to support it.
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “It is open to Imperialists to argue thus: "We must have markets for our growing manufactures, we must have new outlets for the investment of our surplus capital and for the energies of the adventurous surplus of our population:
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “such expansion is a necessity of life to a nation with our great and growing powers of production. An ever larger share of our population is devoted to the manufactures and commerce of towns, and is thus dependent for life and work upon food and raw materials from foreign lands.
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “In order to buy and pay for these things we must sell our goods abroad. . . It was this sudden demand foreign markets for manufactures and for investments which was avowedly responsible for the adoption of Imperialism as a political policy. .
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “They needed Imperialism because they desired to use the public resources of their country to find profitable employment for their capital which otherwise would be superfluous. .
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “Overproduction in the sense of an excessive manufacturing plant, and surplus capital which could not find sound investments within the country, forced Great Britain, Germany, Holland, France
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “to place larger and larger portions of their economic resources outside the area of their present political domain, and then stimulate a policy of political expansion so as to take in the new areas.
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “The process, we may be told, is inevitable, and so it seems upon a superficial inspection. Everywhere appear excessive powers of production, excessive capital in search of investment.
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “It is admitted by all business men that the growth of the powers of production in their country exceeds the growth in consumption, that more goods can be produced than can be sold at a profit,
Interpreters: J. A. Hobson • “and that more capital exists than can find remunerative investment. • “ It is this economic condition of affairs that forms the taproot of Imperialism. ”
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • Imperialism, the Last Stage of Capitalism 1916: • Exploitation of the proletariat projected into the colonies, spurring imperialistic wars that will precipitate the revolutionary upheaval.
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • “It is proved in the pamphlet that the war of 1914_18 was imperialistic (that is, an annexationist, predatory, plunderous war) on the part of both sides; it was a war for the division of the world, for the partition and repartition of colonies, "spheres of influence" of finance capital, etc.
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • “Capitalism has grown into a world system of colonial oppression and of the financial strangulation of the overwhelming majority of the population of the world by a handful of "advanced" countries.
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • “And this "booty" is shared between two or three powerful world marauders armed to the teeth (America, Great Britain, Japan), who involve the whole world in their war over the sharing of their booty.
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • “Monopolist capitalist combines, cartels, syndicates and trusts divide among themselves, first of all, the home market, seize more or less complete possession of the industry of a country.
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • “But under capitalism the home market is inevitably bound up with the foreign market. Capitalism long ago created a world market.
Interpreters: V. I. Lenin • “As the export of capital increased, and as the foreign and colonial connections and "spheres of influence" of the big monopolist combines expanded in all ways, things "naturally" gravitated towards an international agreement among these combines, and towards the formation of international cartels. ”
Interpreters: Joseph Schumpeter • The Sociology of Imperialism, 1918 takes a different view, rejecting economics as a sole motivation:
Interpreters: Joseph Schumpeter • “Modern Imperialism is one of the heirlooms of the absolute monarchical state. The "inner logic" of capitalism would have never evolved it.
Interpreters: Joseph Schumpeter • “Its sources come from the policy of the princes and the customs of a pre_capitalist milieu. But even export monopoly is not imperialism and it would never have developed to imperialism in the hands of the pacific bourgeoisie.
Interpreters: Joseph Schumpeter • “This happened only because the war machine, its social atmosphere, and the martial will were inherited and because a martially_oriented class
Interpreters: Joseph Schumpeter • “ (i. e. , the nobility) maintained itself in a ruling position with which of all the varied interests of the bourgeoisie the martial ones could ally themselves.
Interpreters: Joseph Schumpeter • “This alliance keeps alive fighting instincts and ideas of domination. It led to social relations which perhaps ultimately are to be explained by relations of production but not by the productive relations of capitalism alone.
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “For, in the second half of the twentieth century, it can be seen that imperialism owed its popular appeal not to the sinister influence of the capitalists, but to its inherent attractions for the masses.
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “In the new quasi-democratic Europe, the popularity of the imperial idea marked a rejection of the sane morality of the account-book, and the adoption of a creed based on such irrational concepts as racial superiority and the prestige of the nation.
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “For, in the second half of the twentieth century, it can be seen that imperialism owed its popular appeal not to the sinister influence of the capitalists, but to its inherent attractions for the masses. In the new quasi-democratic Europe, the popularity of the imperial idea marked a rejection of the sane morality of the account -book, and the adoption of a creed based on such irrational concepts as racial superiority and the prestige of the nation. Whether we
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “Whether we interpret it, as did J. A. Schumpeter in 1919, as a castback to the ideas of the old autocratic monarchies of the ancien régime, or as something altogether new—
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “--the first of the irrational myths that have dominated the first half of the twentieth century—it is clear that imperialism cannot be explained in simple terms of economic theory and the nature of finance capitalism.
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “In its mature form it can best be described as a sociological phenomenon with roots in political facts:
D. K. Fieldhouse 1972 • “and it can properly be understood only in terms d the same social hysteria that has since given birth to other and more disastrous forms of aggressive nationalism. ”
Kenneth Boulding 1972 • “The plain historic fact for which there is now an abundance of evidence, both documentary and statistical, is that with the coming of industrialization empire in the classical sense simply ceased to pay.
Kenneth Boulding 1972 • “As I have put it elsewhere, with the development of science-based productivity it became possible to squeeze ten dollars out of nature by production and exchange
Kenneth Boulding 1972 • “for every dollar that could be squeezed out of subject, class, people, or colony by the use of imperial power and the exaction of tribute. ”
Other Motives: Humanitarian • David Livingstone – Missions – Anti-Slavery • Charles Gordon – Khartoum 1885
Other Motives: Strategic • . Alfred Thayer Mahan • The Influence of Sea Power Upon History
Example of Great Britain • Gibralter • South Africa • Aden • Ceylon • Australia • New Zealand • Singapore • Suez Canal • Afghanistan
Differences with Earlier Imperialism • Earlier eras had featured large numbers of Europeans colonizing the new empire. • This era sees no large scale migration. Rather Europeans administer native populations.
Differences with Earlier Imperialism • Previous eras were dominated by mercantilism, with raw products going to the metropolis and manufactured products being sent to the colony.
Differences with Earlier Imperialism • Idea is the same, but the products change, chiefly textiles, plus opportunities for investment of capital
Differences with Earlier Imperialism • Jules Ferry “Colonial policy is the daughter of industrial policy” • Economic considerations are not adequate to explain the New Imperialism, since government expenditures were very heavy and direct profits questionable.
The Scramble for Africa • Synthesis of quinine help make the conquest possible
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • Egypt – 1869 Suez Canal opened – Ferdinand de Lesseps – 1875 Disraeli: 44% of Suez Canal Company – 1882 Protectorate
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • Sudan – Gordon at Khartoum 1885 – Mahdi Revolt – Lord Kitchener 1898 – Omdurman • “Whatever happens, we have got / the Maxim Gun, and they have not. ”
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • Fashoda – French outpost on headwaters of the Nile – Forced out by Kitchener – Maj. Marchand French commander
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • British interest in Egypt and Sudan recognized; • French interest in Equatorial Africa and North Africa recognized • Illustration of “Spheres of influence. ”
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • South Africa – British annexation of Cape of Good Hope 1815 – Boers
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain – The Great Trek – Orange Free State – Transvaal – diamonds found 1867 – gold 1886
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • Cecil Rhodes • diamonds at Kimberley • dreams of empire–united Africa from Cairo to Cape Town under British rule
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • First Zulu War 1879 – Isandlwana – Rorke’s Drift
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • Jameson Raid 1895 • Kaiser Wilhelm writes Kruger Telegram supporting the Boers against the British
The Scramble for Africa: Great Britain • Boer War 1899 -1902 • British placed 120, 000 Boer women and children in concentration camps.
The Scramble for Africa: France • 1830 Algeria • 1881 Tunisia • Pressure on Morocco
The Scramble for Africa: France • Equatorial Africa – Senegal, – Guinea, – Ivory Coast • Madagascar
The Scramble for Africa: Belgium • King Leopold II • Probably the worst of all colonial regimes • Henry Morton Stanley signs treaties with African chieftains • Forced labor for rubber, ivory, and minerals
The Scramble for Africa: Germany • Latecomer • Togoland • Cameroons • German East Africa
The Scramble for Africa: Italy • Italian Somaliland 1889 • Eritrea 1890 – Defeated in Ethiopia at Adowa 1896 • Tripoli 1912
The Scramble for Africa: Spain • Spanish Morocco
Asia: Great Britain • China • Treaty Ports • First and Second Opium Wars • Hong Kong 1841 key possession
Asia: Great Britain • Burma 1886 • Malaya 1896 • Singapore the key fortress
Asia: France • China: • Kwangsi and Kweichow in southern China and
Asia: France • Indo-China – Vietnam 1882 – Cambodia 1887 – Laos 1893 • Tahiti
Asia: Germany • China: – Kiaochow 1897 • Mariana, Carolina and Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean
Asia: United States • Hawaii – Pearl Harbor for strategic reasons – Annexation for both economic and strategic reasons 1898 • Strategic additions – Guam – Wake Island
Asia: United States • Spanish American War 1898 – Cuba – Puerto Rico – Philippines • Panama Canal • Other protectorates in Latin America
Asia: United States • China: • John Hay and the Open Door Policy 1899
Asia: Dutch • Dutch East Indies
Asia: Japan • Matthew Perry 1858 • Meiji Restoration 1868 • Sino-Japanese War 1895: gains Korea • Russo-Japanese War 1905: interests in Manchuria – Treaty of Portsmouth
Asia: Russia • East Asia • Clash with Great Britain, which feared for India • Afghanistan became a battleground for influence
Asia: Russia • Northern China. – Manchuria – Port Arthur • Trans Siberian Railroad
Asia: Russia • Russo-Japanese War 1905 – Tshushima Straits • Treaty of Portsmouth
Boxer Rebellion 1900 -1901 • The Boxer Rebellion was a genuinely grass-roots nationalist rebellion aimed at driving the 'foreign devils' off of Chinese soil.
Boxer Rebellion 1900 -1901 • The European powers, including the US and Japan, sent troops to break the rebellion, which began with attacks on the diplomatic compounds in Beijing.
Boxer Rebellion 1900 -1901 • After the defeat of the Boxers, Hay acted to protect Chinese territorial integrity--there was a real chance that permanent annexations could have been made. He reasserted the principle of impartial trade.
Boxer Rebellion 1900 -1901 • His call for Chinese territorial integrity implied a US commitment to Chinese independence.
The End
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