The language of a literary work What is

The language of a literary work What is language? Poetic language The resources of poetic language Tropes

What is language? • Many animal and even plant species communicate with each other. Humans are not unique in this capability. However, human language is unique in being a symbolic communication system that is learned instead of biologically inherited. • Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are around three years old. They learn to speak language in order to communicate with other people.

What is language? • So, the main social function of language is communication. Language as a system of communication enables humans to cooperate. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves, and to manipulate things in the world. Communication inseparably connects with mental cognitive ability that enables humans to learn and use systems of complex communication

What is language? • Natural language is an important means of human communication. One most important feature of the nation is a common language that defines its national identity. Through language we define the social class of a man. Communicative function of language is reflected in the Bible: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. "

What is language? • Language is tightly linked with thinking. It is a social means of storing and transmitting information, a means of controlling human behavior. Language realizes and exists in speech. • World languages have different structure, vocabulary and other properties, but all languages share some common patterns, the system of language units. Language changes over time, may cease to be used in communication (dead languages). • There is variety of languages: the national language, literary language, dialects. The language is called as any system of signs, such as sign language, the language of mathematics, special characters, and others.

What is language? • The language is called as any system of signs, such as sign language, the language of mathematics that uses special symbols and other kinds of languages. • Consequently, there may be artificial languages such as programming language. Sometimes the language means the same conception as the word "style" (the language of the novel, the language of the newspaper).

What is language? • Language is imaginative (figurative) form of art and in word -speech form expresses the content of a literary work. – "Literature is the final and ultimate expression of thoughts of the people, which is manifested in the word" (V. G. Belinsky), – "The basic material of literature is the Word that expresses all of our experience, feelings, thoughts. Literature is the art of the plastic “drawing” through the word "(M. Gorky).

What is language? Necessary to distinguish • spoken language, • literary language, • poetic language. They are interconnected and interdependent.

Poetic language • The aesthetic function is very important in poetic language. • Poetic language is an important style-forming factor, specificity of poetic language depends on literary type and genre-specific belongings.

WORD • The main component of the language is a Word. The Word is a tool for representation of reality and expressing author’s artistic consciousness. The word may have one or more meaning. • The presence of multiple meaning is called polysemy (многозначность). polysemy

Direct nomination, synonyms • The direct or literal naming of a thing by a word names direct nomination (номинация). • Synonyms are different words with almost identical or nearly similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn (σύν) ("with") and onoma (ὄνομα) ("name"). – The words car and automobile are synonyms. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same meaning.

Antonym • Opposites / antonym/are words that lie in an inherently incompatible binary relationship as in the opposite pairs male: female, long : short, up : down, and precede : follow. The notion of incompatibility here refers to the fact that one word in an opposite pair entails that it is not the other pair member. For example, something that is long entails that it is not short. It is referred to as a 'binary' relationship because there are two members in a set of opposites. The relationship between opposites is known as opposition.

Homonymy Омонимия слов или форм слов, одинаковых по звучанию, но различных по значению Омоформы – Омофоны – слова Омографы – слова, с одинаковым одинаково звучанием, на пишущиеся, но по- совпадающие по звучанию лишь в разным разному звучащие отдельных формах написанием (замок –замок) (грусть-груздь) (простой-простой)

Homonymy Омонимия Homonymy Омоформы = /Homoform/ Омографы = homograph Омофоны =homophone is a word (from the Greek: ὁμός, homós, Обычно омоформы совпадают в одной, двух или трёх формах, that is pronounced the same as "same" and γράφω, gráphō, например: семью (форма another word but differs in "write") is a word or a group of существительного и meaning. words that share the same written числительного), три — трём (rose (flower) and rose (past tense form but have different meanings. (формы числительного и of "rise") (bear (verb) – to support or carry глагола), шило — шила (формы существительного и глагола), bear (noun) – the animal) рой — роя — роем (формы существительного и глагола).

Usage of Hononymy • They are used by the author to create artistic image, puns, jokes, misunderstanding, they are the means of expressiveness in poetical speech.

Morphological variations The author can express his attitude to image with the help of morphological variations. Common words or common lexicon (the vocabulary of a particular language, field, social class, person, etc. ) which are not dependent on the place of living, profession are the base of poetical speech. The particular lexical meaning have the usage of Slavic words, Archaisms, (from the Greek: 'old-fashioned) is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current Historicisms, (refers to words that don’t use in the modern life),

Morphological variations Neologisms, ( Greek νέος (neos 'new') + λόγος (logos 'speech') is a newly coined word or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event Dialects, (If it is associated with a geographically isolated speech community, it is referred to as a regional dialect. However, if it is spoken by a speech community that is merely socially isolated, it is called a social dialect. These latter dialects are mostly based on class, ethnicity, gender , age, and particular social situations) Provincialisms , (provincial or local words) Barbarism, (foreignism) Jargons, (flash tongue; thieves' cant) Professionalisms /(industrial words)

Multi-meaning of words • Literal and Figurative meaning of a word is caused that the word acts in two forms – in author’s speech and in personage’s speech. • The purpose of individualization of an image forces an author to use trope or figures of speech.

TROPE • A literary trope is the usage of figurative language in literature, or a figure of speech in which words are used in a sense different from their literal meaning. The term trope derives from the Greek τρόπος tropos "turn, direction, way", related to the root of the verb τρέπειν (trepein), "to turn, to direct, to alter, to change".

TROPE • In poetic speech there is transformation of normative (literal) usage of words. The center of gravity moves from communicative function to aesthetical one that is the main quality of poetic speech. Figurative language is also sometimes called imagery because it presents an image to the mind. Consider the following sentences: • The leaves blew across the lawn. (Literal language) The leaves danced across the lawn. (Figurative language)

Aesthetic function of a word • The normative usage is transformed in the poetic language. The focus is made from the communicative function toward the aesthetic one that is the main feature of the artistic language. Tropes are a common phenomenon of language, they widen the usage of the words. Expressive possibilities of tropes in poetic language is determined by their emotional, individualized and informative features.

Epithet • One of the hallmarks of the style of the Greek epic poet Homer is the epithet, a combination of a descriptive phrase and a noun. An epithet presents a miniature portrait that identifies a person or thing by highlighting a prominent characteristic of that person or thing. In English, the Homeric epithet usually consists of a noun modified by a compound adjective, such as the following: fleet-footed Achilles, rosy-fingered dawn, wine-dark sea, earth-shaking Poseidon, and gray-eyed Athena. The Homeric epithet is an ancient relative of such later epithets as Richard the Lion. Hearted, Ivan the Terrible, and America the Beautiful. Homer repeated his epithets often, presumably so the listeners of his recited tales could easily remember and picture the person or thing each time it was mentioned.

Comparison - imaginative comparison of two or more things, conditions or concepts that have common attributes. The comparison reinforces the artistic value of the basic concepts. Comparison gives the birth to tropes. Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions, but it is possible non-conjunctional comparisons, when the conjunction is omitted or when they are built descriptively. Some forms of comparisons are used in the instrumental or accusative case, such forms are called-case forms. A common comparison is used when the artist has intentions to express series of events, feelings, thoughts. Negative comparison is called the description of two parallel phenomena.

Metaphor • A figure of speech which involves an implied comparison between two relatively unlike things using a form of be. The comparison is not announced by like or as. Example: The road was a ribbon of moonlight. • Metaphor - the comparison of two unlike things to suggest things which they have in common - for example: Joe is a lion on the playing field would compare Joe to a lion in how he moves, his aggression, his animal-like actions, his skill and strength, his leadership. When you identify a metaphor, you have to dig deeply to find all of the layers of possible meaning.

Metaphor • Metaphors are formed on the basis of impersonation ("water runs"), reification ("steel nerves"), distraction (“field of activity") and so on. The metaphors are distinguished as general linguistic (above mentioned) and individual author’s metaphors. Metaphors tend to be widened and implemented, transforming into metaphorical images.

Allegory • Allegory is the image of abstract ideas through concrete images. • Impersonation (прозопопея) – the process for artistic representation in which the animals, inanimate objects, natural phenomena are endowed human feelings, thoughts, and actions.

Metonymy • Substitution of a word or phrase to stand for a word or phrase similar in meaning. Examples: • (1) In Shakespeare's time, the crown was anti-Catholic. ("Crown" stands for Queen Elizabeth I. ) • (2) The White House was severely criticized for its opposition to the tax increase. ("White House" stands for the president and his advisers. ) • (3) Wall Street welcomes the reduction in interest rates. ("Wall Street" represents investors. ) (4) Sweat, not wealth, earned her the respect of her peers. ("Sweat" stands for hard work. )

Metonymy • Synecdoche - A figure or trope by which a part of a thing is put for the whole, the whole for a part, the species for the genus, the genus for the species, or the name of the material for the thing made, and similar.

Hyperbole Litotes • Hyperbole An exaggerated statement used to heighten effect. It is not used to mislead the reader, but to emphasize a point. Example: She’s said so on several million occasions • Litotes is a figure of speech in which understatement is employed for rhetorical effect. It is most often used to describe the expression of an idea by a denial of its opposite, principally via double negatives. For example, rather than saying that something is attractive (or even very attractive), one might merely say it is "not unattractive. " • Litotes is a form of understatement, always deliberate and with the intention of emphasis. However, the interpretation of litotes can depend on context, including cultural context. In speech, it may also depend on intonation and emphasis; for example, the phrase "not bad" can be said in such a way as to mean anything from "mediocre" to "excellent. "

Oxymoron • a phrase which contains opposite elements or words with opposite meanings, yet which expresses one idea when taken as a whole - for example: Bottom says in Midsummer Night's Dream, "I'll speak in a monstrous little voice. "

Irony • • • Irony of situation - when the reverse of the expected happens or when the person you least expect to do something, does it - for example: It is ironic that Cinderella gets the prince; it is ironic in Dragonwings that the Chinese own and are able to rebuild houses upon the land denied to them by the Demons; it is ironic in Dragonwings that Black Dog dies in the same manner that he tries to kill Moon Shadow. Dramatic irony - when the viewer or the reader is aware of a situation of which the character(s) are not aware - for example: In Romeo and Juliet the reader knows that Juliet is not really dead, but Romeo does not know this. Another example is when the audience knows that Lysander is "drugged" into loving Helena, but he does not know this. Dramatic irony can be a source of tragedy, of comedy, or of tension. Irony of language - when a name or description refers to or suggests the opposite of truth - for example: In Dragonwings the leader of a fierce brotherhood/gang is called Water Fairy. The irony is not just that the name is inappropriate, but that it was earned in an inappropriate way. Irony of language is often used for humor, but it can also be cruel or sarcastic. The name of the character Lefty, in. Dragonwings, is as ironic as his situation.

Periphrasis • is an ambiguous or roundabout figure of speech. In its most basic form, circumlocution is using many words (such as "a tool used for cutting things such as paper and hair") to describe something simple ("scissors"). In this sense, the vast majority of definitions found in dictionaries are circumlocutory.

Euphuism • A euphemism is a substitution for an expression that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the receiver, using instead an agreeable or less offensive expression or to make it less troublesome for the speaker, as in the case of doublespeak. • The purpose of the substitution may also be to avoid revealing secret or sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse. – mentally challenged for stupid – restroom for toilet room in American English (the word toilet was itself originally a euphemism) – mental health center for mental illness center