THE DEFINITION OF ANATOMY v Anatomy Greek to

THE DEFINITION OF ANATOMY v Anatomy § Greek=to cut up, or dissect § The science that deals with the structure of the body v Kinds: § § Gross Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy Developmental Anatomy Comparative Anatomy

Gross Anatomy v. Definition: § That which can be seen with the naked eye v. Kinds: § Regional: • body studied by area § Systematic: • body studied by system

Microscopic Anatomy v Definition: § That which can be seen with the assisted eye v Kinds: § Cytology: • The study of cells § Histology: • The study of tissues § Organology: • The study of organs

Developmental Anatomy v Definition: § The study of anatomical changes in a life cycle v Kinds: § Embryology: • The study of prenatal development § Postnatal development: • The study of structures after birth § Ontogeny: • Total development of an individual

Anatomical Terminology v Anatomic position is a specific body position in which an individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor. v The head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observer. v The arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.

Anatomical Terminology v. A plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific sections. v. The three major anatomic planes of reference are the coronal, transverse, and sagittal planes.

Sections and Planes A coronal plane, also called a frontal plane, is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Sections and Planes v A transverse plane, also called a cross-sectional plane or horizontal plane, cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of the body or organ separating it into both superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

Sections and Planes v A sagittal plane or median plane, extends through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure into right and left halves.

Directional Terms of the Body v. Directional terms are precise and brief, and for most of them there is a correlative term that means just the opposite.

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body v Relative to front (belly side) or back (back side) of the body : § Anterior = In front of; toward the front surface § Posterior = In back of; toward the back surface § Dorsal =At the back side of the human body § Ventral = At the belly side of the human body

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body v Relative to the head or tail of the body: § Superior = Toward the head or above § Inferior = Toward feet not head § Caudal = At the rear or tail end § Cranial = At the head end

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body v Relative to the midline or center of the body: § Medial = Toward the midline of the body § Lateral = Away from the midline of the body § Deep = On the inside, underneath another structure § Superficial = On the outside

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body v Relative to point of attachment of the appendage: § Proximal = Closest to point of attachment to trunk § Distal = Furthest from point of attachment to trunk

Body Regions v. The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and appendicular regions. § the axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of our body § our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and make up the appendicular region

1. Integumentary 2. Skeletal 3. Muscular 4. Nervous 5. Digestive 6. Respiratory 7. Cardiovascular 8. Endocrine 9. Lymphatic 10. Urinary 11. Reproduction

Integumentary System v. Components § Skin § Hair, nails v. Function § § External covering Protection Synthesis of Vitamin D Location of Sense receptors

Skeletal System v Components § Bones § Joints and adjacent cartilages v Function § § Support Protection Movement Blood cell production (red bone marrow) § Mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus)

Muscular System v Components § Skeletal Muscles § Associated Connective Tissues (tendons) v Function § Locomotion § Manipulation of the environment § Facial expression (communication) § Maintain posture § Produce heat

Circulatory System v. Components § Cardiovascular System § Lymphatic System v. Function § Transportation of materials § Within the body § To and from internal and external environments

Cardiovascular System v. Components § Heart § Vessels v. Function § Transportation of blood § Blood contains O 2 and CO 2, nutrients, wastes, etc. § Blood composed of plasma and cells

Lymphatic System v. Components § Lymphatic Organs (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, etc. ) § Lymphatic Vessels v. Function § Transportation of lymph § Lymph is derived from tissue fluid § Houses white blood cells

Immune System v. Components § Immune Organs (red bone marrow, thymus, etc. ) § White blood cells (lymphocytes, macrophages, etc. ) v. Function § Defense (Immune response)

Nervous System v. Components § Brain, Spinal cord (CNS) § Nerves (PNS), sense receptors v. Function § Control system (fast, “hard wired”) § Response to external and internal environments

Endocrine System v. Components § Glands that secrete hormones § E. g. : Pituitary, pancreas, § thyroid v. Function § Control system (slow, “chemical”) § Regulates processes such as growth, reproduction and nutrient use

Respiratory System v Components § Lungs § Tubing ( trachea, bronchus, etc. ) § Larynx (vocal cords) v Function § Exchange of respiratory gases (O 2 and CO 2) § Between blood and atmosphere § Voice production

Digestive System v Components § Alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) § Accessory structures(liver, salivary glands, etc. ) v Function § Break down food into small, absorbable pieces § Between blood and lumen § Eliminate waste

Urinary System v. Components § Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra v. Function § Eliminate waste (nitrogen) from blood § Between blood and external environment § Regulates water, electrolytes, acid/base

Reproductive System v Components § Male Reproductive System § Female Reproductive System v Function § Perpetuation of the species § Hormones influence structure and function § Sexually bimorphic species

REVIEW OF SYSTEMS IN THE BODY v v v v Integumentary System The integumentary (in-teg 0 u-men-tar-e) system is the external covering of the body, or the skin. It waterproofs the body and cushions and protects the deeper tissues from injury. It also excretes salts and urea in perspiration and helps regulate body temperature. Temperature, pressure, and pain receptors located in the skin alert us to what is happening at the body surface. Skeletal System The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints. It supports the body and provides a framework that the skeletal muscles use to cause movement. It also has a protective function (for example, the skull encloses and protects the brain). Hematopoiesis (hem 0 ah-to-poi-e-sis), or formation of blood cells, goes on within the cavities of the skeleton. The hard substance of bones acts as a storehouse for minerals. Muscular System The muscles of the body have only one function—to contract, or shorten. When this happens, movement occurs. Hence, muscles can be viewed as the “machines” of the body. The mobility of the body as a whole reflects the activity of skeletal muscles, the large, fleshy muscles attached to bones. When these contract, you are able to walk, leap, grasp, throw a ball, or smile. The skeletal muscles form the muscular system. These muscles are distinct from the muscles of the heart and of other hollow organs, which move fluids (blood, urine) or other substances (such as food) along definite pathways within the body. Nervous System The nervous system is the body’s fast-acting control system. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. The body must be able to respond to irritants or stimuli coming from outside the body (such as light, sound, or changes in temperature) and from inside the body (such as decreases in oxygen or stretching of tissue). The sensory receptors detect these changes and send messages (via electrical signals called nerve impulses) to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) so that it is constantly informed about what is going on. The central nervous system then assesses this information and responds by activating the appropriate body muscles or glands.

v Endocrine System v Like the nervous system, the endocrine system controls body activities, but it acts much more slowly. The endocrine glands produce chemical molecules called hormones and release them into the blood to travel to relatively distant target organs. v The endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries (in the female), and testes (in the male). The endocrine glands are not connected anatomically in the same way that parts of the other organ systems are. What they have in common is that they all secrete hormones, which regulate other structures. The body functions controlled by hormones are many and varied, involving every cell in the body. Growth, reproduction, and food use by cells are all controlled (at least in part) by hormones. v Cardiovascular System v The primary organs of the cardiovascular system are the heart and blood vessels. Using blood as the transporting fluid, the cardiovascular system carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other substances to and from the tissue cells where exchanges are made. White blood cells and chemicals in the blood help to protect the body from such “foreign invaders” as bacteria, toxins, and tumor cells. The heart acts as the blood pump, propelling blood through the blood vessels to all body tissues. v Lymphatic System v The role of the lymphatic system is complementary to that of the cardiovascular system. Its organs include lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs such as the spleen and tonsils. The lymphatic vessels return fluid leaked from the blood to the blood vessels so that blood can be kept continuously circulating through the body. The lymph nodes (and other lymphoid organs) help to cleanse the blood and house the cells involved in immunity.

v v v v Respiratory System The jobs of the respiratory system are to keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide. The respiratory system consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Within the lungs are tiny air sacs. It is through the thin walls of these air sacs that gas exchanges are made to and from the blood. Digestive System The digestive system is basically a tube running through the body from mouth to anus. The organs of the digestive system include the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum. Their role is to break down food and deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the body cells. The undigested food that remains in the tract leaves the body through the anus as feces. The breakdown activities that begin in the mouth are completed in the small intestine. From that point on, the major function of the digestive system is to reclaim water. The liver is considered to be a digestive organ, because the bile it produces helps to break down fats. The pancreas, which delivers digestive enzymes to the small intestine, also is functionally a digestive organ. Urinary System As it functions, the body produces wastes, which must be disposed of. One type of waste is nitrogen-containing waste (such as urea and uric acid), which results from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids by the body cells. The urinary system removes the nitrogen-containing wastes from the blood and flushes them from the body in urine. This system, often called the excretory system, is composed of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Other important functions of this system include maintaining the body’s water and salt balance and regulating the acid-base balance of the blood. Reproductive System The reproductive system exists primarily to produce offspring. Sperm are produced by the testes of the male. Other male reproductive system structures are the scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and the duct system, which carries sperm to the outside of the body. The ovary of the female produces the eggs, or ova; the female duct system consists of the uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina. The uterus provides the site for the development of the fetus (immature infant) once fertilization has occurred.

Necessary Life Functions «Like all complex animals, humans must maintain a core set of necessary life functions to survive» . v Movement The muscular system propels our bodies and allows us to move from one place to another. The skeletal system provides the bony framework our muscles need to pull on as they work to produce movement. Without these features, humans wouldn’t be able to perform necessary life functions to survive.

v Maintaining boundaries All organisms must be able to maintain boundaries and separate their internal environment from the external one. , v Each cell in the human body is enclosed by a selectively permeable membrane which allows it to take in substances and excrete waste, all while blocking potentially harmful substances. Additionally, the body itself is protected by the integumentary system, or skin. The layer of skin around our bodies protects our internal environment from the external world.

Necessary Life Functions v Digestion In order for nutrients and minerals to be absorbed into blood , food we eat must be broken down into smaller molecules. The digestive system breaks down ingested food and liquid into smaller molecules our body can absorb. In turn, the nutrient-rich blood is then distributed throughout the body by the cardiovascular system.

Necessary Life Functions v Responsiveness is defined as the ability to sense changes in the environment and then respond to them (also called excitability). Responsiveness is an extremely important necessary life function. For instance, if you cut your hand open on a razor blade, your body produces a reflex and you involuntarily pull your hand away from the razor. You don’t have to think about it, your body just naturally pulls your hand away. Many systems within the human body act in this exact same manner. Motor cortex man Sensory cortex man

Necessary Life Functions v Metabolism is a term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within the body. Metabolism is regulated by hormones secreted from (glands) the endocrine system.

Metabolism v Anabolism § Using of energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids § Example? v Catabolism § breaking down of organic matter and getting energy by way of cellular respiration § Example?

Necessary Life Functions v Excretion If the human body is to operate correctly, it must be able to get rid of waste and nonessential items. Several organ systems participate in the excretion of waste products. For instance, the urinary system disposes nitrogenous waste while the digestive system rids the body of indigestible food as feces.

Necessary Life Functions v Reproduction In order to survive, all living organisms must reproduce. The reproductive system is responsible for producing offspring and is directly regulated by hormones of the endocrine system.

Necessary Life Functions v Growth Humans must grow to survive. The scientific term for growth means “constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones”.

v Oxygen Survival Needs Human cells can only survive for a few minutes without oxygen. Chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions and require oxygen. In fact, oxygen is so vital to the human body that it would only last a few minutes without it. The respiratory and cardiovascular systems work in conjunction to make oxygen available throughout the body. v Water The human body is 60 -80% water. Water is the most abundant chemical substance in the body and provides the environment necessary for life. We obtain water through food and liquids and loose it through bodily excretions and evaporation (from the skin). v Nutrients contained in food and liquids contain chemical substances used for energy and cell building. Carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, proteins, and fats are all vital in maintaining a healthy body. For instance, calcium helps make bones hard and vitamin D is needed in order to produce sufficient amounts of calcium. v Appropriate atmospheric pressure Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on the right type of atmospheric pressure. For instance, on top of Mount Everest (at high altitude), gas exchange can be inadequate for the human body to survive.

Organization of Human Body v Atoms v Molecules v Cells v Tissues v Organs v Systems v Human Body

Composition of the human body

Organic – Inorganic v Inorganic § Water § Basic Salts § Simple acids v Organic § Carbohydrates: Starch - Sugars § Proteins : amino acids § Lipids : storage of energy § Nucleic Acids: DNA - RNA

Cell v 75 to 100 trillion cells in the body. v Self-destruct system. When the infected and broken cells cannot be fixed, they will be destroyed completely (apoptosis) v 300 billion new cells are produced every day. 300 million old cells die every minute. v Different parts of your body regenerates at different rates § red blood cell is about 4 months (~100 -120 days) § epidermal skin cells live for 2 -4 weeks § white blood cells, lasts any where from hours to years. § some neurons a lifetime

Cell

Tissue Types v. Muscle v. Epithelial v. Connective v. Nervous

Muscle Tissue 3 types of muscle tissue v Cardiac –heart v Skeletal – attached to bones v Smooth – internal organs and blood vessels

Cardiac Muscle

Skeletal Muscle

Smooth Muscle