The Congress of Vienna September 1 1814

The Congress of Vienna (September 1, 1814 – June 9, 1815)

Coin Commemorating the Opening of the Congress of Vienna

Main Objectives • It’s job was to undo everything that Napoléon had done: • Reduce France to its old boundaries her frontiers were pushed back to 1790 level. • Restore as many of the old monarchies as possible that had lost their thrones during the Napoléonic era. • Supported the resolution: There is always an alternative to conflict.

The Congress of Vienna Negotiators • Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain • Czar Alexander I of Russia • Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria • Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand of France Metternich • Distrusted democracy and political change • Dominated the congress, wanted to restore the balance of power Goals for Other Decision Makers • Make sure France could not rise again to such power • Put down revolution wherever it might appear • Remove traces of French Revolution and Napoleon’s rule

Key Players at Vienna British Foreign Minister, Viscount Castlereagh (Br. ) Tsar Alexander I (Rus. ) The “Host” Prince Klemens von Metternich (Aus. ) King Frederick William III (Prus. ) Foreign Minister, Charles Maurice de Tallyrand (Fr. )

Congress of Vienna (1814 -1815) • European monarchs sought to turn back the clock to 1789 and restore Europe’s Old Regime • Members included the “Big Four” and France – Austria – Prince Metternich – England – Duke of Wellington and Lord Castlereagh – France – Talleyrand – Prussia – Frederick William III, Hardenberg, and Humboldt – Russia – Tsar Alexander I

Key Figures of the Congress of Vienna • Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria • Served as host and presided over the Congress • Wanted to restore Europe to what it was before the French Revolution

Metternich (1773 -1859) • Opposed democracy and nationalism • Proposed principles of compensation and legitimacy

Key Figures Continued • Czar Alexander I of Russia: • Played a prominent role in the European Coalition to defeat Napoleon • Instituted the Holy Alliance

Key Figures Continued • Lord Robert Castlereagh of Great Britain: • Secretary of State for the War and Colonial Department • He helped to plan the British campaigns against Napoleon • Played a large role in organizing the Coalition against Napoleon • Resisted Russian attempts to draw Britain into an European League

Even France was represented—by the Marquis de Talleyrand—a man who had survived the revolution of 1789, was Napoleon’s foreign minister, and now he represented Louis XVIII—quite a

Key Figures Continued • Prince Maurice de Talleyrand of France: • A former Catholic Bishop • Survived all the stages of the Revolution • Obtained advantageous terms for France at the Congress • Served as the French ambassador to Britain and created good relations

Talleyrand Political Cartoon • Mr. ALL-YOURS OR THE VERY EMBODIMENT OF GRATITUDE AT THE CONGRESS IN VIENNA. Talleyrand---Malmaison National Museum This Bonapartist caricature criticizes Talleyrand (shown here as acting under the devil's influence), who was accused of abandoning Napoleon upon hearing of the Emperor's return from Elba (hence the text he is writing down). • The former minister is in fact considered to have played a rather positive role during the Congress of Vienna. • Thanks to him, France was able to keep its conquests dating back to 1793 (Nice and Savoy) together with the works of art stolen by the French during the Directoire and the Empire, and which had been added to the Louvre collections. • All this was lost after Waterloo.

Key Figures Continued • Prince Karl August von Hardenberg: • Chancellor of Prussia • Played a leading role in the Coalition against Napoleon • Was against Russia annexing Poland but was overruled by King Frederick William III

Of course, there were hundreds of other minor princes, dukes, barons, and religious leaders all meeting in Vienna. They went to party after party. During the night they danced with great beauties—but during the day, they negotiated for their separate countries.

Key Principles Established at Vienna V Balance of Power/Compensation V Legitimacy V Encirclement of France e Coalition forces would occupy France for 3 -5 years. e France would have to pay an indemnity or war reparations of 700, 000 francs.

OBJECTIVES: • Legitimacy – restore monarchs on their thrones. Put the government back to the way it was. Reactionary and conservatives rule • Compensation – Land! in 1815, size was everything. Winners regain what they lost from France. Try for more • Balance of Power – a new European order in which no single power was able to dominate.

• More than anything, they wanted to prevent another Napoleon figure from ever conquering Europe again. • They want to replace French hegemony with an equilibrium. • Want liberalism and nationalism BLOCKED as liberal and nationalist uprising are what opened door to Napoleon. • Not simply a territorial arrangement; it was, more importantly, a strategic and military balance. • They embraced the idea of ‘buffer zones’ between their country and potentially hostile neighbors.

Goal One: Compensation • All countries involved should be repaid for their expenses incurred while fighting the French • France was forced to give up its recently gained territory and pay for war damages • Great Britain received the West Indies, the Dutch colony of Ceylon, South Africa, and a few other islands • Austria gained the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, and the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea • Prussia received territories along the Rhine River and half of the Kingdom of Saxony • Russia received most of the Polish territory formerly held by Prussia and Austria

Territorial Changes • Austria gained Lombardy, Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Venetia (all areas in Italy) • England gained Cape Colony, Ceylon, Heligoland, Guiana, and Malta (areas in Africa, the Americas, and Asia) • Holland gained Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) • Prussia gained part of Poland, land along the Rhine River, 40% of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, and Westphalia • Russia gained Finland part of Poland • Sweden gained Norway

Goal Two: Legitimacy • Restoring the power of the royal families who had ruled before Napoleon • This was to stabilize the governments • Reestablished royal dynasties in: France, Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, and Sicily • Restored the Bourbon Kings to Spain and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies • Restored the House of Orange to the Netherlands • Restored the House of Savoy to Sardinia • Made the Pope the leader of the Papal States • The Bourbon heir, Louis XVIII was made • legal ruler of France • Habsburg princes returned to their thrones in Central Europe

The Congress had many goals. One was LEGITIMACY: • Only rulers from families before the French Revolution should be put back on the throne. • Napoleon’s brothers were removed from Holland Spain • In France, Louis XVIII accepted the throne, with a constitution that limited his powers and promised equality.

Legitimacy • Legitimacy – Restoration of pre-Napoleon rulers – House of Bourbon – France, Spain, and the two Sicilies – House of Braganza – Portugal – House of Orange – Netherlands – House of Savoy – Sardinia – Habsburg German princes – territories in the Confederation of the Rhine – Pope and Catholic Church – Papal States

The Bourbons were restored to the various thrones of Europe…in France, the now “old” brother of the executed Louis XVI, Louis XVIII was king.

Louis XVIII of France • No more divine right of kings • Charter (Constitution) granted in 1814 • Could not restore feudalism and serfdom • Continuing religious toleration guaranteed

Restoring Monarchies • Napoleon had eliminated royal control in many countries. • Members of the old Bourbon royal family were returned to the thrones of Spain and Sicily. • Monarchies were restored in Portugal and Sardinia. Metternich’s Influence • His reactionary attitudes influenced politics and society. • Wanting a return to absolute monarchy, he despised constitutions, voting rights, and freedom of religion and the press. • Liberal ideas were suppressed in Austria, the German states, and northern Italy.

Goal Three: Encirclement of France---Balance of Power *To keep France from renewing its drive for power *Austrian Netherlands united with the Dutch Republic to form the single kingdom of Netherlands *Group of 39 German States joined the German Confederation dominated by Austria *Switzerland recognized as an independent and neutral nation *Kingdom of Sardinia in Italy was given Piedmont and Genoa *France was encircled by stronger nations now

Buffer States • Designed to prevent France from again becoming a threat • Holland Sardinia enlarged and strengthened • European nations guaranteed Switzerland’s neutrality

The Confederation of the Rhine, as set up by Napoleon, remained.

The Germanic Confederation, 1815

Prussia’s borders were set.

Results of the Congress of Vienna • Concert of Europe – group of leading nations which periodically met to discuss issues regarding stability • Temporary suppression of democratic and nationalistic ideals • International peace – no general war in Europe until World War I a hundred years later – Crimean War (1854 -1856) – Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Franco-Prussian War (1870 -1871)

An Evaluation of the Congress of Vienna q The Congress of Vienna was criticized for ignoring the liberal & nationalist aspirations of so many peoples. q The leading statesmen at Vienna underestimated the new nationalism and liberalism generated by the French Revolution. q Not until the unification of Germany in 1870 -71 was the balance of power upset. q Not until World War I did Europe have another great war.

The “Concert” of Europe System Established q. The principle of collective security was established. q. The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle [1816] q. The Congress of Troppau [1820] q. The Congress of Laibach [1821] q. The Congress of Verona [1822] q. Their goal was to define and monitor the status quo.

Impact of the Congress of Vienna: Revolutions • For nearly 30 years, there was peace in Europe, but… • German students did protest for more liberal reforms and were put down by the Metternich and King Frederick William III with the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819 • The Decrees imposed strict censorship of all publications and suppressed freedom of speech • Liberal reformers in Spain created a constitutional monarchy in 1820 • Revolts broke out in Latin American colonies against Spanish control in 1820 s • Greeks fought for independence from the Ottomans in 1821 • Liberalism and Nationalist movements continued to grow

Democratic Revolts • Liberal movement within German universities – Carlsbad Decrees (1819) • Abolished student fraternities • Established strict censorship of the press • Placed spies in classrooms to monitor professors and students • • Spanish Revolt (1820) Revolts in Naples and Piedmont (1820) Second French Revolution (1830) Revolts in Austria, France, and Prussia (1848)

Discouraged Democratic and Nationalistic Movements • Quadruple Alliance and Concert of Europe suppressed revolts • Spy network used to uncover revolutionary activity • Strict censorship of education, the press, and speech

The Congress ended amidst promises to meet regularly to deal with any conflicts that arose in future congresses.

Political Cartoon on Carlsbad Decrees: Stopping Democracy

In the next few years, congresses were held in Aix la Chapelle in 1818, Troppau in 1820, and Verona in 1822. These “meetings” or congresses, as they were called, dealt with many issues. But they had one goal in mind:

Keep the Peace—no more wholesale European Warfare!

Of course, there will be wars during the 1800 s—but they will not encompass all of Europe, so, the Hundred Years Peace is an appropriate title.

There will be the Crimean War….

There will be Italy’s Unification--

Germany will experience the: • Danish-Prussian War • Prussian Austrian War • Franco Prussian War

But after their wars, Germany will become a united country.

And Britain will experience the Boer War in its South African regions.

That is why the years 1814 -1914 is called the “Hundred Years’ Peace. ”

The Congress of Vienna, for that reason, might be termed a successful peace conference.

In the years to come, Metternich would suppress any sign of revolution…he used secret spies, censored papers, and suppressed students.

The Metternich system was adopted by other countries. Their leaders supported spying, informants, and suppression.

The novel and film “Les Miserables” takes place during this time.

A Shift in Power • Balance is Lost – In 1815, the Congress of Vienna established five powers in Europe • • • Austria Prussia Britain France Russia – By 1871, Britain & Prussia (now Germany) have gained much power – Austria & Russia are weaker militarily & economically

Political Philosophies: Conservatives or Reactionaries • Protect the existing traditional forms of government • Moderate conservatives believed in a constitutional monarchy like Britain • Extreme conservatives believed in an absolute monarchy like in Russia • Most conservatives were: the royal families, nobles, and wealthy landowners

Def: advocates legitimate, traditional government in order to preserve the status-quo. Edmund Burke, the founder of modern conservative thought, wrote: “The state was a partnership, but one not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born…No one generation therefore has the right to destroy this partnership. ”

CONSERVATISM continued: • Legitimacy – restoring the hereditary rule of monarchs on their thrones of Europe. Belief in the Divine Right of Kings or Absolutism. • Traditions – feudal privileges, social hierarchies and orders, traditional Catholicism. The nobility was one of Europe’s most ancient institutions, and conservatives regarded tradition as the basic source of human institutions.

CONSERVATISM continued: • Preserve the Status Quo: Peace, Stability, and Order is achieved by a Balance of Power. Conservatives: Edmund Burke, Prince Metternich Generally aristocrats of noble or royal blood The peacemakers of 1815 (Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia) were men who were backward-looking and conservative, who believed that liberalism was responsible for a generation of war and untold bloodshed and suffering.

19 c Conservatism q Conservatism arose in reaction to liberalism & became a popular alternative for those who were frightened by the violence unleashed by the French Revolution. q Early conservatism was allied to the restored monarchical governments of Austria, Prussia, France, and England. q Support for conservatism: q Came from the traditional ruling class. q Also supported by the peasants. q Supported by Romantic writers, conservatives believed in order, society and the state, faith, and tradition.

Characteristics of Conservatism q Conservatives viewed history as a continuum. q The basis of society is organic, not contractual. q Stability & longevity, not progress and change, mark a good society. q The only legitimate sources of political authority were God and history. q. They rejected the “social contract” theory. q Conservatives believed that self-interests do not lead to social harmony, but to social conflict. q. Denounced individualism and natural rights. q To conservatives, society was hierarchical.

Conservatism • Reactionaries (Put it back the way it was) • Revolution of 1848 – Successful revolutions in all European countries – Monarchies returned after 6 months in all countries • Tories/conservatives

Conservative Alliances • Quadruple Alliance • Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and later France • November 1815 • To discuss the security of Europe • To preserve territories and suppress revolutions • • Holy Alliance. Russia, Austria, and Prussia Organized by Czar Alexander I “Justice, Christian Charity, and Peace” • United Christian monarchs • Pope refused to join • Great Britain’s parliament would not approve joiningviolated constitution

Quadruple Alliance

Holy Alliance

Political Philosophies: Liberalism • This was a movement to give more power to an elected Parliament • Limited parliaments for which only the educated and property owners could vote • Most did not believe in democracy • Key supporters: upper DEMOCRACY bourgeoisie, business leaders, and merchants

Def: advocates limited government in order to protect individual liberties. It is the ideology of Freedom: Freedom of Right to Property Assembly Equality of opportunity Freedom of Press Free Trade Freedom of Religion Freedom of Speech Freedom from arbitrary arrest

Origins of 19 c Liberalism • The word was first used when the term was adopted by the Spanish political party, the Liberales, in 1812. • The roots of liberalism came from two very different traditions of English & French political thought. – England • John Locke • Adam Smith – France • Jean Jacques Rousseau • Francois Guizot

The origins of Liberalism: The Enlightenment introduced the idea of a social • contract based on natural rights and equality of men. John Locke: “all men are born free and equal. ” • French Revolution instituted a new political order based on individual freedom • Such rights and freedoms would be guaranteed in constitutions as Liberalism demanded representative government as opposed to autocratic monarchy • Napoleon codifies this philosophy in Napoleonic Code which spreads to most of Europe

John Locke • Contract theory of government. – Regarded the state as a human construction, established by an original contract. • Limited, constitutional government. – Civil society of free men, equal under the rule of law, bound together by no common purpose but sharing respect for each other’s rights. – Doctrine of natural rights. – Links private property with individual liberty.

• Liberal economists believe the best government governs the least. The government should let the economy alone— laissez-faire. Economic freedom should be given through free trade. • Valued equality of opportunity—each individual has the opportunity to succeed; careers are open to all citizens on the basis of their talents, not their titles, heritage, or privileges. Life is “like a rat race”—everyone has the opportunity to win. But this also means that there will be losers. (Industrialization brought poverty)

Adam Smith • His Wealth of Nations adds an economic dimension. • He merged Locke’s ideas of civil society with economic theory. – Free trade economics. – Saw the “invisible hand” where a benevolent God administered a universe in which human happiness was maximized.

Jean Jacques Rousseau • His Social Contract and theory of the “general will” demonstrates an alternative origin of Liberalism. – Men must resolve problems through our capacity to choose how we ought to live. • Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains. • Humans are essentially free, but the ‘progress’ of civilization has substituted subservience to others for that freedom.

Rousseau & Totalitarianism • The “General Will” a strong and direct form of democracy. – Only possible in a relatively small state? – Is Rousseau promoting collective tyranny? • Rousseau rejected representative democracy.

Liberalism • Poets/novelists • Natural life superior (noble savage) • Aimed at complacent middle class – Charles Dickens • Social conditions – Honorè de Balzac • Stupid middle class – Jane Austen • Against classes – The Bronte sisters • Against male domination

“Moderate” Liberalism 1. Favored the idea of the sovereignty of the people, but… – Government should rest on the organized consent of at least the most important sections of the community. – An extension of the franchise to include all men of property. • Exclude the working class! 2. A good constitutional monarchy was the best form of government. 3. Valued liberty more than equality. – Confidence in man’s powers of self-government and self-control. – Freedom of the press. – Free right of assembly. 4. Written constitutions.

“Moderate” Liberalism 5. Economic policies: – – Laissez-faire economy. Free trade. Lower tariffs. Against the right of the working class to organize into unions. 6. The general progress of humanity would emerge from the growth of wealth and from science and inventions. 7. Established churches & the landed aristocracy were obstacles to the advancement of civilization. 8. Orderly change by legislative process. 9. A dislike of wars, conquests, a standing army, and military expenditures. 10. Hated the idea of revolution!

Challenges to Liberalism • From above the conservative upper class. • From below Socialism/Marxism. • From organized religions. • From militarism and imperialism. • From economic upheavals: – Irish Potato Famine [1845 -1852]. – Great Depressions [1873 -1896].

• Until the Revolutions of 1848, Liberals did NOT want democracy (or Universal Manhood Suffrage) • Why? You must have a stake in society —property. Liberalism guarantees a right to private property. Liberals: John Locke, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill Generally men of the business and educated professionals.

Political Philosophies: Radicalism • Favored drastic and violent change--includes Nationalism • Wanted democracy where everyone could vote • Believed governments everywhere should practice the ideals of the French Revolution • Key supporters were: sans culottes, intellectuals, and students

Def: a sense of unity based upon shared characteristics: language, culture, historical experience, religion, ethnicity and geography. To some, nationalism expressed a desire or right for nationalities to rule themselves. Examples of nationalities that did not rule themselves in 1815 were Germans, Italians, and Poles. They wanted it – conservatives worried about more revolution

What is nationalism? • Nationalism is pride in a country’s heritage

What is nationalism? • Nationalism can also include… – National Anthem – Cultural Heritage – Language – Religion – Anything which is a shared feature of a country, group or culture.

Nationalism • What is nationalism? – The belief that the greatest loyalty should be to a nation of people who share a common culture & history • What was the effect of nationalism? – Tore apart centuries-old empires – Gave rise to the nation-state – Opposed by conservatives

Types of Nationalism 1. Unification merges culturally similar lands 2. Separation splits off culturally distinct groups 3. State-building binds separate cultures into one

How is nationalism demonstrated? • Monuments

How is nationalism demonstrated? • Historical Sites

How is nationalism demonstrated? • Flags

Nationalistic Revolts • • Latin American Revolutions (1810 -1825) Greek War of Independence (1821 -1829) Italian Revolt (1830) Belgian Independence Revolt (18301839) • Polish Revolt (1831) • Revolts in Bohemia, German states, Hungary, and Italian states (1848)

Latin American Revolutions (1810 -1825) • Independence movements arose following Napoleon’s invasion of Spain • Revolutions supported by Great Britain and United States – Great Britain • Wanted to trade with Latin America, which Spain had never permitted – United States • Also wanted to trade • Sympathized with democratic ideals • Monroe Doctrine (1823) – U. S. would not interfere in Europe, and Europe would not interfere in the independent nations of the Americas – Support from the United States and Great Britain (a member of the Quadruple Alliance) kept Europe away

Revolutionary Movements in the Early 19 c

Spanish Revolt (1820) • Ferdinand VII had scrapped the liberal constitution of 1812 – Restored absolutism, Inquisition, and Old Regime – Suppressed individual liberties • 1820 – revolt – Ferdinand had to restore the 1812 constitution • Quadruple Alliance met in Verona in 1822 – Sent French army into Spain • Ferdinand restored to power – Ruled as an autocratic despot – No democratic progress in Spain for approximately 100 years

Italian Revolt (1820) • Revolts in Piedmont and Naples • Led by Carbonari (“charcoal burners”) – secret organization – Wanted constitutions to limit royal absolutism • Congress of Laibach (1821) – Quadruple Alliance had Austrian military suppress the revolts • Austrian army – “fire brigade of Europe”

Wallachia & Moldavia Independence Movements in the Balkans

Nationalists Challenge Conservative Power • The Balkans – Region controlled by the Ottoman Empire • Present day Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, and the former Yugoslavia • Battle of Navarino (1827) – British, French, & Russian fleet destroyed the Ottomans – Greece gained independence

Greek Revolt (1821 -1829) • Greeks revolted against Ottoman (Turkish) rulers • Metternich sided with the Turks • Britain, France, and Russia sided with the Greeks • Greece won its independence in 1829

Greek Revolution - 1821

Greek Independence q The “Eastern Question” q Hetairia Philike a secret society that inspired an uprising against the Turks in 1821. q Pan-Hellenism q 1827 Battle of Navarino q Br, Fr, Rus destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet. q 1828 Rus declared war on the Otts. Greece on the Ruins of Missilonghi by Delacroix, 1827 q 1829 Treaty of Adrianople q 1830 Greece declared an independent nation [Treaty of London].

The 1830 Revolutions

Belgian Independence, 1830 q The first to follow the lead of France. q Its union with Holland after the Congress of Vienna had not proved successful. q There had been very little popular agitation for Belgian nationalism before 1830 seldom had nationalism arisen so suddenly. q Wide cultural differences: q North Dutch Protestant seafarers and traders. q South French Catholic farmers and individual workers.

Belgian Revolution - 1830

A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830 q The bloodiest struggle of the 1830 revolutions. q The Poles in and around Warsaw gain a special status by the Congress of Vienna within the Russian Empire. q Their own constitution. q Local autonomy granted in 1818. q After Tsar Alexander I dies, the Poles became restless under the tyrannical rule of Tsar Nicholas I. q Polish intellectuals were deeply influenced by Romanticism. q Rumors reached Poland that Nicholas I was planning to use Polish troops to put down the revolutions in France and Belgium. q Several Polish secret societies rebelled.

A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830 q Had the Poles been united, this revolt might have been successful. q But, the revolutionaries were split into moderates and radicals. q The Poles had hoped that Fr & Eng would come to their aid, but they didn’t. q Even so, it took the Russian army a year to suppress this rebellion. q The irony by drawing the Russian army to Warsaw for almost a year, the Poles may well have kept Nicholas I from answering Holland’s call for help in suppressing the Belgian Revolt.

The Results of the 1820 s-1830 Revolutions? 1. The Concert of Europe provided for a recovery of Europe after the long years of Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. 2. The conservatives did NOT reverse ALL of the reforms put in place by the French Revolution. 3. Liberalism would challenge the conservative plan for European peace and law and order. 4. These revolutions were successful only in W. Europe: § Their success was in their popular support. § Middle class lead, aided by the urban lower classes. 5. The successful revolutions had benefited the middle class the workers, who had done so much of the rioting and fighting, were left with empty hands! 6. Therefore, these revolutions left much unfinished & a seething, unsatisfied working class.

Ethnic Uprisings in 1848 Numerous ethnic uprisings occurred throughout Europe

Revolution of 1848 • Causes – Liberals from middle class demand rights – Economic slowdown – Poor harvests – Nationalism among European minorities

The Revolutions of 1848 • Big Picture: the Revolutions of 1848 were the result of the movement of Liberalism in the 19 th century in Europe. • Remember the contrast between political Liberalism and Conservatism? • Simply put, political conservatives represented the values of the Ancien Regime

The Revolutions of 1848 • Two key issues before we start: • Britain and Russia do not undergo any manner of revolt in this time period for different reasons. • The Continent, everywhere from France to Italy to the German States to the Hapsburg Empire, does under go some manner of revolution. • Why not Britain and Russia?

The Revolutions of 1848 • Britain: • The revolutions did not affect England because England had already gone beyond the goals the revolutionaries sought to achieve. • Britain had a representative government, and a relatively progressive liberal economy. • Key, this does not mean the England was “worker friendly. ” No part of Europe was…

The Revolutions of 1848 • Russia: • They did not affect Russia because Russia had not yet developed the economic and social pressures which stimulate the liberal revolution. • They literally were so far away from the impact of liberalism that revolution was not even a issue. • Russia at this time is a country ruled by repressive Czars, and dominated by a feudal agrarian economy.

Reform in Russia • By the 1800 s, Russia still had not industrialized – Society and economy based on the feudal system • By the 1820 s, many Russians believed that serfdom must end • Problem was the czar did not want to free them – It would anger the landowners – Czar needed support from landowners to stay in power

Reform in Russia • Defeat Leads to Change • 1853, Czar Nicholas I wanted to take over part of the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War – Industries & transportation system failed to provide adequate supplies for the troops – 1856, Russia lost the Crimean War – Nicholas II decided that Russia needed to modernize and industrialize

Reform in Russia • The Reforms of Czar Alexander II – Freed the serfs in 1861 – Peasant communities received about half the farmland – Nobles kept the other half – Government paid nobles for their land • Terrorists assassinated Alexander II, 1881 – Political & social reforms stopped • Alexander III tightened control – Encouraged industrial development – Nationalism was force behind Russia’s drive toward industrial expansion

Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires • Russian Empire – Controlled over a dozen different ethnicities with different cultures – Used the policy of “Russification” • Forcing Russian culture on all peoples • Actually strengthened ethnic cultures – Ultimately empire falls in 1917 • Due to the problems during World War I

Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires • Austrian Empire – Empire included people from many ethnic groups – 1866 defeat to Prussia forces the split into Austria & Hungary – Still ruled by emperor Francis Joseph

Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires • Ottoman Empire – Internal tensions among ethnic groups weakens empire – Conservative Turks led the genocide and deportation of thousands of Armenians in 1894 -1896 – Empire ultimately falls soon after World War I

Views of Nationalism • Nationalists use their common bond to build nation-states • Rulers use nationalism to unify their subjects

The Revolutions of 1848 • The Rest of Europe? • The revolutions of 1848 did, however, sweep across Europe from Paris in the west to cities throughout Germany and Italy, to Berlin in Prussia, and to Vienna and Prague and Budapest in the Austrian Empire. • This is part of the larger trend of the formation of the nation state in Europe. • Another way of looking at it would be this:

Radicals Change France • Demand for democratic government the main goal of the revolution of 1848 • Establishment of The Third Republic – People overturned a monarchy & est. a republic – New republican gov’t began to fall apart almost immediately • The radicals split into factions • A moderate constitution was drawn up in 1848

Radicals Change France (cont) • France Accepts a Strong Ruler – Louis-Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon) won the presidential election December 1848 • Four years later took the title of Emperor Napoleon III • A majority of French voters accepted this without complaint – French were weary of instability – Louis-Napoleon’s policies • • • Built railroads Encouraged industrialization Promoted public works Unemployment decreased The country experienced real prosperity

The Revolutions of 1848 • Generally speaking, the trend in 19 th century Europe of State formation shows the conflict between two- forces: • Established monarchies and family dynasties tended to represent the values of the “Ancien Regime. ” • Replacing these monarchies and families by representative governments meant a true shift in the role of government in society.

The Revolutions of 1848 • Blanket Statements: • The revolutions of 1848 occurred in cities where a middle class was often joined by university students, who shared liberal goals. • They united temporarily with urban working people who sought to relieve the oppressive working conditions imposed upon them in the early industrial period.

The Revolutions of 1848 • Middle class people; entrepreneurs, industrial managers, shopkeepers, professionals, could not identify with the workers and their goals. Therefore, the united front was short-lived. • They could cooperate in overthrowing the government of the old regime, but they could not share in the effort to create a new government.

The Revolutions of 1848 • The revolution hardly touched the countryside because the peasants did not participate in the revolution and had their own agenda. • Wherever peasants enjoyed ownership of the land, they tended to be a conservative influence.

The Revolutions of 1848 • More specifically, there was an element of crisis all over Europe which also contributed to the revolution. • That is, a depression and sporadic famine and high unemployment were involved. • Living conditions in cities were growing worse, and there were no social services to deal with the growing urban poor.

Conclusion • Unrest throughout Europe caused Revolution of 1848 • Liberals desired greater political participation • Nationalities demanded independence • Conservatives manage to put down rebellions

1848 – The Consequences • The revolutions failed to pull popular support from working classes. • Middle classes led the revolution, but as it turned more radical, they held back. • Were they were successful, old guard was left in place and they turned against them. • Nationalism divided more that united. • Some gains lasted (abolition of serfdom, etc. ) • In the longterm, most liberal gains would be solidified by the end of the century, Germany and Italy would be unified, and the Austrian Empire would collapse at the end of World War I.