The Composition of the Planet s Water The

The Composition of the Planet’s Water

The Hydrologic Cycle

Global Freshwater Availability

Physical Water Scarcity vs. Economic Water Scarcity

Water Availability per region (2012) Region Middle East and North Africa Average water availability (cubic meters/person) 500 Sub-Saharan Africa 1, 000 Caribbean 2, 466 Asia/Pacific 2, 970 Europe 4, 741 Latin America 7, 200 North America (including Mexico) 13, 401

Green, Blue, and Gray Water

Global Water Use 19% Agricultural Municipal 11% 70% Industrial

Water Consumption Per Capita

Virtual Water: All the water (green, blue, grey) used throughout the process of production of each good Product 1 sheet of paper (80 g/m 2) 1 tomato (70 g) 1 slice of bread (30 g) 1 orange (100 g) 1 apple (100 g) 1 glass of beer (250 ml) 1 glass of wine (125 ml) 1 egg (40 g) 1 glass of orange juice (200 ml) 1 bag of potato crisps (200 g) 1 glass of milk (200 ml) 1 hamburger (150 g) 1 cotton T-shirt 1 pair of shoes (bovine leather) Virtual-water content (liters) 10 13 40 50 70 75 120 135 170 185 200 2, 400 2, 700 8, 000

Virtual water used in six types of fuels, for a round trip New York City- Washington D. C. Type of fuel Amount of water needed in the extraction/production of 2 Million BTUs of energy Natural Gas (conventional) 5 gallons Unconventional natural gas (shale) 33 gallons Oil (conventional) 32 gallons Oil tar sands (mining) 616 gallons Biofuel type 1 (irrigated corn) 35, 616 gallons Biofuel type 2 (irrigated soy) 100, 591 gallons

Calculate your own water footprint = direct water use + virtual water of all goods and services http: //www. gracelinks. org/1408/water-footprint-calculator The average person living in the US consumes about 2220 gallons of water a day: That’s 44 bathtubs each day. Diet makes a big difference: a vegetarian’ water footprint can be less than 50% of a meat eater’s footprint.

National Water Footprint for selected countries, in cubic meters person per year (1997 -2001) 3000 2500 2000 1500 Agricultural goods Industrial goods 1000 Domestic water consumption 500 C hi na In di Ja a Pa pan k In ista do n ne si a Br az M il ex i R co us Th sia ai la nd Ita ly U SA 0

Water-Energy Nexus

Trade in Virtual Water : Cotton

Transfers of virtual water through trade Virtual-water balance per country (billion cubic meters)

Water Scarcity and Conflicts: Syria 1, 5 million people internally displaced because of the 2006 -2011 drought March 2011: Anti-Assad Revolution erupts

Two people, one land, one aquifer: Water and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict

Addressing Water Shortages Increasing water supply? • Dams (dramatic ecological and social consequences). • Pumping aquifers (20% aquifers are already being mined beyond their rate of recharge, including the Upper Ganges Valley in India and Pakistan, the Nile Delta Region in Egypt, and the Central Valley in California). • Desalination: energy-intensive and costly. Dealination in California: $1800 -$2800 per AF Groundwater: $375 -$1100 per AF Surface water: $400 -$800 per AF • Water Conservation Micro-irrigation – reuse and recycle wastewater Cost of conservation (San Diego county): $150 -$1000 per AF • How to promote water efficiency?

Regulation by the market? The market price of water and the problem of subsidies for large irrigators Subsidies to irrigation lead to a consumption of Quantity Qs of water Qe would be the market equilibrium without subsidies Q* would be the ecologically optimal quantity withdrawn

Average Monthly Water Bills in U. S. Cities

Price per Unit Pricing Structures Uniform Rate Structure Price per Unit Quantity of Water Used Increasing Block Rate Structure Quantity of Water Used Price per Unit Decreasing Block Rate Structure Quantity of Water Used

Increasing Bloc Rate Structure in U. S. Cities with the greatest differences in water rates Santa Fe, N. M. Austin, Tex. City Charlotte, N. C. 50 gallons person per day San Diego San Francisco Atlanta $0 $50 $100 $150 Average monthly water bill $200 $250 100 150

Marginal Value of Water in Various Uses (per acre-foot)

Markets of Water Rights for Major Users (irrigators, industries, cities) • Water markets are in place in several countries, including Australia, Chile, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. • In the US, Municipalities are the most common purchaser of water (mostly from irrigators), but transfers between irrigators are also common. About 17 percent of the water purchased is for environmental purposes, including purchases by municipalities and environmental organizations. => great potential for water markets to improve the environment

Water Management and Governance: What institutional frameworks for water conservation? • • State control? Public services in developing countries have often proven inefficient and corrupt Privatization? Promoted by World Bank and IMF – but without appropriate regulation, water companies can charge excessive rates and fail to address the needs of the poorest The “Water War” in Cochabamba, Bolivia, 2000

Re-creating Collective Systems for Management of the Commons? The acequias of New Mexico are communal irrigation canals, a way to share water for agriculture in a dry land. “Communities have relied on institutions resembling neither the state nor the market to govern some resource systems with reasonable degrees of success over long periods of time ” - Elinor Ostrom, in “Governing the Commons” (1990)

Local Movements for Re-Municipalization of Water • 2002: Felton water system was sold to California American Water Co. (Cal-Am), a subsidiary of RWE Aktiengesellschaft - the third largest water company in the world. RWE filed for a 74% rate increase. • In 2003, residents form a coalition to buy back their water resources to Cal-Am – at ballot, 75% voters voted YES – A six-year legal battle ensued. • In 2008 Felton citizens won back their water, inspiring dozens of other towns to do the same. 180 cities and communities in 35 countries, including Buenos Aires, Johannesburg, Paris, Accra, Berlin, La Paz, Maputo and Kuala Lumpur, have all “re-municipalized” their water systems in the past 10 years.