TECHNOLOGY ﺗکﻨﻮﻟﻮژی Chapter 5 Mary Jo Hatch

3 Perspectives on Technology… Technology is the means of converting raw materials into finished outputs. It consists of objects, tasks, and knowledge. Technology determines structure. Technology both shapes and is shaped by social interactions - through routines and improvisations. Technology is a form of remote control, discipline & power. It can also liberate.

Fig. 5. 1 The Organization as a Technical System Inputs Transformation Process Outputs

Task Technology Levels of Analysis Unit Organizational Societal

Technologies Tools & equipment Work processes, activities, procedures, techniques, Knowledge & skills

Modernist Definitions of Technology Core technology High technology Service technology

Woodward was looking for the one best way to organize . . . Strategy Structure Strategy. . . she found that the best way depended on technology: Technology Structure

Figure 5. 2 Woodward’s Technical Complexity Scale Low Production of single pieces to customer orders Small batch and unit production Production of technically complex using one by one ﺗﻮﻟیﺪ ﻭﺍﺣﺪی یﺎ ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺍی Production of pieces in small batches Large batch and mass production ﺗﻮﻟیﺪ ﺍﻧﺒﻮﻩ Continuous process production ﺗﻮﻟیﺪ ﻓﺮآیﻨﺪی ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ Fabrication of large equipment in stages Production of components in large batches subsequently assembled diversely Production of large batches, assembly line type Mass production Technical complexity Continuous process production combined with the preparation of a product for sale by large batch or mass production methods Continuous process production of chemicals in batches Continuous flow production of liquids, gases, and solid shapes High

Small Batch One product is produced at a time, or in small amounts e. g. , custom products, wine

Large Batch Large quantities of identical products using highly routinized and often mechanized procedures e. g. assembly line

Continuous Process Raw material is fed into one end of the process and flows continuously through the system e. g. oil, beer, sewage, electricity

Table 5. 1 Findings from Woodward’s study Structure dimension Technology Unit Production Levels of management Span of control Ratio direct to indirect labor Administrative ratio Formalization (written) Centralization Verbal communication Skill level of workers Overall structure Mass production Continuous process 3 23 9: 1 low low high organic 4 48 4: 1 medium high low mechanistic 6 15 1: 1 high low high organic

Thompson added services to the typology Manufacturing technology Tangible product Products can be held in inventory Capital intensive Service technology Intangible output Production and consumption simultaneous (no inventory) Knowledge and labor intensive

Figure 5. 3 Thompson’s Matrix of Technologies TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES ﻓﺮآیﻨﺪ ﺗﺒﺪیﻞ standardized non-standardized INPUTS/OUTPUTS ﻭﺭﻭﺩی ﻭ ﺧﺮﻭﺟی standardized Long-linked پیﻮﺳﺘﻪ - ﻃﻮﻻﻧی non-standardized ? Mediating Intensive ﻭﺍﺳﻄﻪ ﺍی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ

Figure 5. 4 Perrow’s Typology TASK VARIABILITY ( ﺗﻐییﺮ پﺬیﺮی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ﺍی )ﺗﻨﻮﻉ high Routine Engineering ﺗکﺮﺍﺭی ﻣﻬﻨﺪﺳی (assembly line) (accounting) Craft low TASK ANALYZABILITY ﺗﺤﻠیﻞ پﺬیﺮی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ی low Non-routine ﻫﻨﺮی ﻏیﺮ ﺗکﺮﺍﺭی (construction) (R & D)

Perrow’s Types of Technology

Symbolic-Interpretive Perspective on Technology is socially constructed as people interact with and around it. This process includes: • Physical objects, equipment, symbols (words & images) and metaphors. • Task activities, actions, interactions. • Knowledge and interpretation.

ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی • ﺍیﻦ ﻧﻈﺮیﻪ پﺮﺩﺍﺯﺍﻥ ﻣﺪﻟﻬﺎی ﺧﻄی ﻧﻮآﻮﺭی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭﺍﻧﻪ ﺩیﺪگﺎﻩ ﻣﺪﺭﻧیﺴﺖ کﻪ ﻧﻮآﻮﺭی ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮیﻖ ﺣﺮکﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ پیﺶ ﺑیﻨی ﻋﻠﻢ ﻣﺤﺾ ﺗﺎ پژﻮﻫﺶ کﺎﺭﺑﺮﺩی ، ﺗﻮﺳﻌﻪ ﻭ. . . ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻬﺎیﺖ ﺑﻪ کﺎﺭگیﺮی ﺗﺮﺳیﻢ ﻣی کﻨﺪ ، ﺑﻪ چﺎﻟﺶ ﻣی کﺸﻨﺪ. • ﺳﺎﺧﺖ گﺮﺍیﺎﻥ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎی ﺍیﻦ ﻣﺪﻝ ﻫﺎی ﺧﻄی ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ، ﺑﺮﺭﺳی ﻫﺎی ﺗﻔﺼیﻠی ﺍﺯ ﺑﺴﺘﺮ ﺍﺣﺎﻃﻪ کﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻌﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺟﺪیﺪ ﻭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی آﻨﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻄﺮﺡ ﻣی ﺳﺎﺯﻧﺪ. ﺩﺭ ﺍیﻦ ﺩیﺪگﺎﻩ ﺍﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﻫﻨﺠﺎﺭ ﻫﺎی ﻓﺮﻫﻨگی، ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی، ﻭ ﺍﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﻗﺪﺭﺕ ﺑﺮ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ، ﺷیﻮﻩ ﻫﺎی ﻃﺮﺍﺣی ﻭ ﺗﻮﻟیﺪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﻭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﻣی ﺷﻮﻧﺪ. • ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺗی کﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍیﻦ ﺳﻨﺖ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣی گیﺮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻼﺵ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺭﺍﻫﻬﺎیی پیﺶ ﺭﻭی ﻧﻈﺮیﻪ پﺮﺩﺍﺯﺍﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻫﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺍﺯ آﻦ ﻃﺮیﻖ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎی آﻦ کﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ کﺎﺭﺑﺮﺩ ﻫﺎی ﻣﺤﺾ یﺎﻓﺘﻪ ﻫﺎی ﻋﻠﻤی ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﺳﺎﺯﻩ ﻫﺎی ﺫﻫﻨی ﻣﺤﺴﻮﺏ گﺮﺩﻧﺪ.

ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی • ﺩیﺪگﺎﻩ ﻫﺎی ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭگﺮﺍیﺎﻥ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﺑﺮ ﺍیﻦ ﺑﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﺟﻨﺒﻪ ﻫﺎی ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭﺍﻧﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ یکﺪیگﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺷکﻞ ﻣی ﺩﻫﻨﺪ. ﺑﺪیﻦ ﺗﺮﺗیﺐ ﻫﻢ گﺮﻭﻫﻬﺎی ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ چیﺪﻣﺎﻥ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻁ ،ﻣﻔﺎﻫیﻢ ، ﻓﻨﻮﻥ ﻭ چﺎﺭچﻮﺑﻬﺎی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭﺍﻧﻪ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺷکﻞ ﻣی گیﺮﻧﺪ • ﺍﻧﻌﻄﺎﻑ پﺬیﺮی ﺩﺭ ﻧﺤﻮﻩ ﻃﺮﺍﺣی ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﺮﺳﺎﺯ، ﻓﺮﺻﺖ ﺍیﺠﺎﺩ گﺰیﻨﻪ ﻫﺎیی ﺑﺮﺍی ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻌیﺎﺭﻫﺎی ﻏیﺮﻓﻨی ﻧﻈیﺮ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﻫﺎی ﻓﺮﻫﻨگی ، ﻫﻨﺠﺎﺭﻫﺎی ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی یﺎ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺎﺕ ﻗﺪﺭﺕ ﻓﺮﺍﻫﻢ ﻣی کﻨﺪ. پژﻮﻫﺸگﺮﺍﻥ ﻋﻼﻗﻤﻨﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ پیﺶ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺍﺳﺎﺳی ﺗکیﻪ ﻣی کﻨﻨﺪ:

ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی • ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ پیچیﺪﻩ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ کﻪ ﺟﻮﺍﻣﻊ ﻣﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣی ﺳﺎﺯﻧﺪ ﺷکﻞ گﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻌکﺲ ﻣی ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻤیﻨﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺗﺎ ﻧﺒﺎیﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺷیﻮﻩ ﺍی کﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻭﺍﻗﻌی ﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ. • ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی کﺎﺭﺑﺮﺩ ﻣﺤﺾ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧیﺴﺖ، ﺑﻠکﻪ ﻣﺘﺎﺛﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ، ﻓﺮﻫﻨگی ، ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩی ﻭ ﻓﻨی ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﻡ ﺑﺮ آﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ آﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺷکﻞ ﻣی ﺩﻫﺪ.

New Technologies (Weick) Three properties make new technologies (e. g. nuclear reactors, robotics, spacecraft) more non-routine than those in the past: ü Stochastic – unexpected interruptions due to dense interactions ( )ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻓی among many components and to unique problems. ü Continuous – ( )پیﻮﺳﺘﻪ fully automated, workers keep system running while system does the work. ü Abstract – working processes are hidden so operators must ( )ﺍﻧﺘﺰﺍﻋی develop symbolic and conceptual models of what is going. These can diverge from actual system performance.

ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟی • ﻭیک ﺩﺭ ﺗﻮﺻیﻒ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟی ﺍﺩﻋﺎ ﻣیکﻨﺪ کﻪ ﺍیﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻗی ﻧﺎﻣﻌیﻦ کﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣی ﺩﻫﻨﺪ کﻪ ﻋﻤﺪﺗﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺳﻄﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻣﺘﺮﺍکﻤی ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﻣیﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ آﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﺮﻭﺯ ﻣی کﻨﺪ. ﻧﺘیﺠﻪ ﺍیﻦ پیچیﺪگی ﺍﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ چیﺰﻫﺎی ﻏیﺮﻣﻨﺘﻈﺮﻩ ﺍی ﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣی ﺩﻫﻨﺪ. ﺑﺪیﻦ ﺗﺮﺗیﺐ کﻨﺘﺮﻝ آﻨﻬﺎ ﺩﺷﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻣی ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺷکﺴﺖ ﻫﺎی ﻏیﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺗﺼﻮﺭی ، ﻧﻈیﺮ ﺍﻧﻔﺠﺎﺭ کﺎﺭﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﺗﻤی ﺭﺍ ﺍیﺠﺎﺩ کﻨﻨﺪ. ﺍگﺮچﻪ ﺭﻭیﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎی ﻏیﺮﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻧﺘﻈﺎﺭ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﻗﺪیﻤی ﺗﺮ ﻧیﺰ ﺭﺥ ﻣی ﺩﻫﺪ )ﺍﻧﻔﺠﺎﺭ ﺩیگ ﻫﺎی ﺑﺨﺎﺭ( ﻭﻟی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ ﺍﺯ آﻦ ﺟﻬﺖ کﻪ ﺭﻭیﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎیی کﻪ ﺩﺭ آﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﺮﻭﺯ ﻣی کﻨﺪ ﻧﻤی ﺗﻮﺍﻥ پیﺶ ﺑیﻨی کﺮﺩ ، ﺗکﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﺨﻮﺍﻫﻨﺪ ﺷﺪ ﻭ کﻢ ﻭﺑیﺶ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻓی ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣی ﺭﺳﻨﺪ ﻧﻪ ﻣی ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﺭﻩ آﻨﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻧﻪ ﺍﺯ آﻨﻬﺎ یﺎﺩﺑگیﺮیﻢ، ﻣﻨﺤﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺮﺩ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ

ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ • ﻭیک ﺍﺩﻋﺎ ﻣی کﻨﺪ کﻪ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﻧﺪ، ﺍﺯ آﻦ ﺟﻬﺖ کﻪ ﺧﻮﺩکﺎﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ ، ﻣیﺰﺍﻥ ﺧﻮﺩکﺎﺭی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ ، ﻣﻘیﺎﺱ پیچیﺪگی ﻓﻨی ﻭﻭﺩﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺭﺍ کﻨﺎﺭ ﻣی گﺬﺍﺭﺩ. ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ پیچیﺪﻩ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻓﺮﺍیﻨﺪﻫﺎی ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﻧﺪ کﻪ ﻭﻭﺩﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺗﻮﺻیﻒ کﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ آﻦ ﺟﻬﺖ کﻪ ﺍیﻦ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎ کﺎﻣﻼ ﺧﻮﺩکﺎﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎی آﻦ کﻪ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ ﻣکﺎﻧیﺰﻩ یﺎ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪی ﺧﻮﺩکﺎﺭ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ. ﺯﻣﺎﻧی کﻪ ﺳیﺴﺘﻢ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ کﺎﻣﻞ ﺧﻮﺩکﺎﺭ ﻣی ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ، ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺍﺯ کﺎﺭﺍیی ﺑﻪ پﺎیﺎیی ﺗﻐییﺮ ﺟﻬﺖ ﻣی ﺩﻫﺪ. • ﺩﺭ ﺍیﻦ ﺳیﺴﺘﻢ ﻫﺎ، کﺎﺭﺍیی ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮیﻖ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺗﻨﻈیﻢ کﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺗﺠﻬیﺰﺍﺕ کﻨﺘﺮﻝ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟیکﻪ ﺍپﺮﺍﺗﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺑﺮ ﺗﺠﻬیﺰﺍﺕ ﻧﻈﺎﺭﺕ ﻣی کﻨﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺟﺮﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺷکﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﻧﺸﻮﻧﺪ. یکی ﺍﺯ ﺟﻨﺒﻪ ﻫﺎی ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ پیﻮﺳﺘگی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ آﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺸکﻼﺕ ﺟﺪیﺪ ﻭ ﺣﻞ آﻨﻬﺎ ، ﺳیﺴﺘﻢ ﺑﻪ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘیﺠﻪ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺗﻐییﺮ ﻣی کﻨﺪ.

ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺍﻧﺘﺰﺍﻋی • ﻭی ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻣی کﻨﺪ کﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻓﺰﺍیﺶ پیچیﺪگی ﻓﻨی، ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﻭ ﻧیﺮﻭی کﺎﺭ ﺩﺭﻭﻥ ﻣﺎﺷیﻦ ﻫﺎ ﻧﺎپﺪیﺪ ﻣی ﺷﻮﻧﺪ. ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍیﻦ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ ﺍﻧﺘﺰﺍﻋی ﺍﻧﺪ. یﻌﻨی ﺍپﺮﺍﺗﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﻧﻤی ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ آﻨچﻪ ﺭﺍ کﻪ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣی ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ﺑﺒیﻨﻨﺪ. ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍیﻦ ﺑﺮﺍی ﺩﺭک ﻓﺮﺍیﻨﺪﻫﺎی کﺎﺭی ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﺎیﺪ ﻣﺪﻝ ﻫﺎی ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘی آﻨچﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ، ﺷکﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮ آﻨﻬﺎ ﺗکیﻪ کﻨﻨﺪ. آﻨگﺎﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻟیﻞ ﺍیﻨکﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻤﺎﺩﻫﺎی ﻓﺮآیﻨﺪﻫﺎی کﺎﺭ ﻣی کﻨﻨﺪ کﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺐ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻓﺮﺍیﻨﺪﻫﺎی ﻭﺍﻗﻌی ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ، ﻣﺪﻝ ﻫﺎی ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘی ، آﻨﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺮﺽ ﺩﺭک ﻧﺎﺻﺤیﺢ ﻭ ﺗﻔﺴیﺮﻫﺎی چﻨﺪگﺎﻧﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣی ﺩﻫﺪ.

The Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) Technology is co-constructed by environmental, social, cultural, economic, and technical factors. Machines have a technical, historical, and a social presence.

Postmodernism & Technology • Technology can imprison us if we become subservient to its needs (Heidegger). • Technology is a means of controlling behavior and disciplining organizational members. • Technology can liberate (globalization, knowledge, democracy).

Technologies of Control Technology, power, and social control are interwoven. § People are evaluated on their ability to contribute to the efficiency of the system § Knowledge becomes a commodity, only relevant if it can be translated into information. § Power struggles will occur over the control of information. § The growth of cyberveillance. § A means of greater democracy and resistance.

پﺴﺖ ﻣﺪﺭﻧیﺴﺖ ﻭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺟﺪیﺪ • ﺑﻪ گﻔﺘﻪ ﻧﻈﺮیﻪ پﺮﺩﺍﺯ پﺴﺖ ﻣﺪﺭﻥ، ﻟیﻮﺗﺎﺭ، ﻣﺪﺭﻧیﺴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﻭﻗﻮﻉ ﺍﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺟﺪیﺪ ﺑﺮ ﻓﺮآیﻨﺪﻫﺎی ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋی ﻭ ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘی ﺯیﺮ ﺳﻮﺍﻝ ﺭﻓﺖ. ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍیﻦ ﻧگﺎﻩ، ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻣﻨﺸﺎ ﺗﻐییﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﻨیﺎﺩی ﺩﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ. ﻟیﻮﺗﺎﺭ ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ "ﺍﺳﺘیﻼی ﺭﺍیﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎ" ﻧﻮﻋی ﺗﻐییﺮ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺎکیﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺘﺎیﺞ ﻭ ﺍﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻋﻤﻠی ﺑﻪ ﺍﺑﺰﺍﺭ ﺗﺤﻘﻖ آﻦ ﻧﺘﺎیﺞ، ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺮﺍﻩ ﻣی آﻮﺭﺩ. ﺍﻭ ﺑﻌﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﺩﻋﺎ ﻣی کﻨﺪ کﻪ ﺳﺮﻣﺎیﻪ ﺩﺍﺭی ﻓﺮﺍ-ﺻﻨﻌﺘی ، ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﻫﺎی ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺯﺷﻬﺎیی ﻧﻈیﺮ ﺣﻘیﻘﺖ ﻭ ﻋﺪﺍﻟﺖ ﺑﻪ کﺎﺭﺍیی ﺗﻐییﺮ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ. )آﻨچﻪ ﻭی آﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺳﻬﻢ ﻓﺮﻫﻨگی ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻣی ﻧﺎﻣﺪ(

پﺴﺖ ﻣﺪﺭﻧیﺴﺖ ﻭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺟﺪیﺪ • ﻟیﻮﺗﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻣی کﻨﺪ کﻪ ﺍیﻦ ﺗﻐییﺮ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ، ﺩﻻﻟﺖ ﺑﺮ ﻧﻮﻋی گﺬﺍﺭ ﺍﺯ آﻨچﻪ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ )ﺣﻘیﻘﺖ( ﺍﺳﺖ ﺑﻪ آﻨچﻪ ﺳﻮﺩﻣﻨﺪ یﺎ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﺑﺎﺯﺍﺭی ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ، ﺍﺷﺎﺭﻩ ﻣی کﻨﺪ. • ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﻋی کﺎﻻ ﺗﺒﺪیﻞ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ ﻧﻪ ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﺭﺯ ﺫﻫﻨی ﺗﺤﺼیﻞ کﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ آﻤﻮﺯﺵ ﺩیﺪﻩ. ﺑﻪ گﻔﺘﻪ ﻟیﻮﺗﺎﺭ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺑیﻦ ﻣﺪﺭﻥ ﻭ پﺴﺖ ﻣﺪﺭﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻃﻼﻋﺎﺕ کﺎﻣﻞ کﻪ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﺭﺍیﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣی ﺩﻫﺪ، ﺷکﻞ گﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ. ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻃﻼﻋﺎﺕ کﺎﻣﻞ ﻫیچ ﻣﺰیﺘی ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﺩ کﻪ ﺑﻪ کﺴﺐ ﺍﻃﻼﻋﺎﺕ ﺑیﺸﺘﺮ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﺷﻮﺩ. ﻣﺰیﺖ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣی ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻨﻈیﻢ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷیﻮﻩ ﻫﺎی ﺟﺪیﺪ ﻧﺎﺷی ﺷﻮﺩ.

Cyborgization - A postmodern self of ambiguity, multiple identities, partial connections, and simulated consciousness which results from dualisms. - A metaphor for examining the relationship between the body, social order, and historical and political repression. - A technological/human organization.

The Technological Imperative Technology determines structure … Woodward (1965) The degree of technical complexity will affect structure. Organizations can be successful if they align strategy, structure, and technology. Perrow (1970) Technology influences the degree of uncertainty in work, which in turns affects the appropriate organizational design and management style. These may vary across departments. Thompson (1967) Technology will affect the degree of interdependence and therefore the need for coordination and therefore which type of structure is best.

Figure 5. 5 Woodward’s view of technology Routineness of work HIGH Small Batch Mass Production Continuous Processing assembly workers artisans artists technicians, scientists design engineers LOW HIGH Technological complexity

Woodward’s Routineness & Perrow’s Task Typology Figure 5. 6 ro ut VARIABILITY in en es high Routine Engineering low ANALYZABILITY s low Craft Non-routine

Mediating technology Figure 5. 7 Client 1 Transformation Processes Inputs A's tasks Client 2 B's tasks Client 4 + Client 3 + Client 5 C's tasks Outputs Client 6 Pooled task interdependence Inputs

Figure 5. 8 Long-linked technology Transformation Process Inputs A's B's C's tasks Sequential task interdependence Outputs

Figure 5. 9 Intensive technology Transformation Process Inputs A's tasks B's tasks C's tasks Reciprocal task interdependence Outputs

Links between Thompson’s Technology, Task Interdependence and Coordination Mechanisms Type of Technology Task Interdependence Coordination Mechanism Mediating Pooled ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ Sequential ﺗﺮﺗیﺒی Reciprocal ﺩﻭﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ Rules and procedures Long-linked Intensive Schedules Mutual adjustment

ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ﺍی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ • ﺩﺭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻭﺍﺳﻄﻪ ﺍی ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩی ﺍﺯ ﺩﻓﺎﺗﺮ یﺎ کﺎﺭکﻨﺎﻥ ﻭﻇﺎیﻒ کﺎﺭی ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻘﺮیﺒﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯ یکﺪیگﺮ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣی ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ آﻨﺠﺎیی کﻪ ﺟﺮیﺎﻥ کﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻗﻌی ﺑیﻦ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎ، کﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣیگیﺮﺩ. ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍیﻦ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻣﺴﺘﻘیﻢ کﻤﺘﺮی ﺑیﻦ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﻣی یﺎﺑﺪ. ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩی ﺍﺯ ﺍیﻦ ﻗﺒیﻞ کﻪ ﺩﺭ آﻨﺠﺎ ﺳﺘﺎﺩﻩ ﺳﺎﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﻋﻤﺪﺗﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺗﻼﺷﻬﺎی ﻫﺮ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ﺍی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ ﻧﺎﻣیﺪﻩ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ. • ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻮﻥ ﻣی گﻮیﺪ: گﺮﻭﻫﻬﺎیی کﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ﺍی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ کﺎﺭ ﻣی کﻨﻨﺪ، ﻧیﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻫﻨگی کﻤﺘﺮی ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ. ﻫﻤﺎﻫﻨگی ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻧیﺎﺯ ﺑﺮﺍی ﺩﺳﺘیﺎﺑی ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﻋی ﻫﻮیﺖ ﺳﺎﺯﻣﺎﻧی ﻣﻨﺴﺠﻢ یﺎ ﺍﻃﻤیﻨﺎﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺍیﻨکﻪ ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﻣیﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺯگﺎﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﻣی ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪ ﺯیﺎﺩی ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮیﻖ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻭ ﺭﻭیﻪ ﻫﺎی ﺍﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪﺍﺭﺩ ﺑﺮﺍی ﻋﻤﻼﺕ ﺗکﺮﺍﺭی ، ﻣﺤﻘﻖ ﺷﻮﺩ.

ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟی • ﻓﻦ آﻮﺭی پیﻮﺳﺘﻪ -ﻃﻮﻻﻧی ﻣﺴﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ ﻭ ﻫﻤیﻨﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟی ﺍﺳﺖ. ﺑﺮﺍی ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ چﻨﺪ ﺧﻂ ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺎژ ﻣی ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺩﺭ یک ﻟﺤﻈﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺷیﻮﻩ ﺍی ﻋﻤﻞ کﻨﻨﺪ کﻪ ﺑﻪ آﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﺟﺎﺯﻩ ﻣی ﺩﻫﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯ یکﺪیگﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟیﺖ کﻨﻨﺪ ﻃﻮﺭی کﻪ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺯ آﻦ ﺟﻬﺖ کﻪ ﺳﺘﺎﺩﻩ ﻫﺎیﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺭﻭﻥ ﻧﻮﻋی ﺳﺎﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺗﺠﻤیﻊ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ ﺷکﻞ ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣی گیﺮﻧﺪ. • ﺩﺭ ﻋیﻦ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﻭﻥ ﻫﺮ ﺧﻂ، ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی پیچیﺪﻩ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺯیﺮﺍ کﺎﺭگﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻢ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ. ﺍیﺠﺎﺩ ﻣﺸکﻞ ﺩﺭ کﺎﺭ یکی ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍیﺠﺎﺩ ﻣﺸکﻞ ﺩﺭ کﺎﺭﺩیگﺮی ﺍﺳﺖ. ﺍیﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی، ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟی ﻧﺎﻣیﺪﻩ ﻣی ﺷﻮﺩ. ﺩﺭ ﻓﻦ آﻮﺭی ﻫﺎی پیﻮﺳﺘﻪ ﻃﻮﻻﻧی ﻣﺎﻫیﺖ ﺗﻮﺍﻟی ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ﺍی ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ، ﻣﺴﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﻃﺮﺡ ﺭیﺰی ﻭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺑﻨﺪی ﺑیﺸﺘﺮی ﺍﺳﺖ.

ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﺩﻭ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ • ﺣیﻄﻪ ﻭﻇﺎیﻒ ﺩﺭ یک ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ ﺑﺮﺍی یک ﻓﺮﺩ ﺑﺮﺍی ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻋﻤﻠیﺎﺕ ﺗﺒﺪیﻞ ﺑﺴیﺎﺭ گﺴﺘﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ. ﻃﻮﺭی کﻪ ﻧیﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺍﻃﻼﻋﺎﺕ ﺑیﻦ کﺎﺭگﺮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻃی ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻭﻇﺎیﻔﺸﺎﻥ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ. ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻮﻥ ﺍیﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﺩﻭ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ ﺗﻮﺻیﻒ ﻣی کﻨﺪ. • ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﺻﻠی ﺑیﻦ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟی ﻭ ﺩﻭ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍیﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟی کﻪ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی پیﻮﺳﺘﻪ - ﻃﻮﻻﻧی ﺩﺭگیﺮ ﻧﻮﻋی ﺟﺮیﺎﻥ ﻫﺎی کﺎﺭی ﺍﺳﺖ کﻪ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ ﺩﺭ یک ﺟﻬﺖ ﺣﺮکﺖ ﻣی کﻨﺪ، ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻫﺎی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ ﺑﺎ ﺟﺮیﺎﻥ ﻫﺎی کﺎﺭی ﻣکﻤﻞ ﺳﺮﻭ کﺎﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ. ﻫﻤﺎﻫﻨگی ﻭﻇﺎیﻒ ﻣﺤﻮﺭی ﻋﻤﻠیﺎﺕ یک ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ، ﻣﺴﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﺳﺎﺯگﺎﺭی ﺩﻭﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ ﺍﻓﺮﺍﺩ یﺎ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎی ﺩﺭگیﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺳﻄﻪ ﻣﺎﻫیﺖ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﻭﻇیﻔﻪ ﺍی ﺍﻧﻬﺎﺳﺖ. ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭی ﻣﺘﻤﺮکﺰ ﻫﺮ ﺳﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘگی ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘیﺠﻪ ﻫﻢ ﺭﻭیﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻃﺮﺡ ﺑﻨﺪی ﻭ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﺒﻨﺪی ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺳﺎﺯگﺎﺭی ﺩﻭ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ ﺭﺍ ﻧیﺎﺯ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ.

Table 5. 2 Guttman Scale of Relationships Task Rules & Interdependence Procedures Schedules & Plans Pooled X Sequential X X Reciprocal X X Mutual Adjustment X

Figure 5. 10. HOW MODERNIST THEORIES ARE ELABORATED Woodward Technology Structure Performance Galbraith Communication Technology Structure Combining Woodward & Galbraith Technology Communication Structure Performance