Take out a piece of paper Name the

Take out a piece of paper Name the Seven Dwarfs

Difficulty of Task • Was the exercise easy or difficult. It depends on what factors? • Whether you like Disney movies • how long ago you watched the movie • how loud the people around you when you are trying to remember

As you might have guessed, the next topic we are going to examine is……. Memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. So what was the point of the seven dwarfs exercise?

Turn your paper over. Now pick out the seven dwarfs. Grouchy Smiley Droopy Puffy Grumpy Snorty Wheezy Gabby Jumpy Dopey Dumpy Bashful Nifty Stubby Fearful Hopeful Sniffy Sneezy Cheerful Happy Poopy Sleepy Shy Wishful Pop Teach Doc Shorty

Seven Dwarfs Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory exercise? Recall v. Recognition • With recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill-in-the blank tests). • With recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple-choice tests). • Which is easier?

Three Kinds of Memory Episodic Memory Generic Memory Procedural Memory

Episodic or Flashbulb Memory • A clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event. Where were you when? 1. You heard about 9/11 2. You heard about the break up of the space shuttle Columbia over Texas What would be an episodic event we have all shared recently? 3. You heard about the assassination of JFK, RFK, MLK 4. You heard the OJ verdict (1 st one)

Generic Memory • General knowledge – Don’t remember when we acquired the information • Remember learning the alphabet? • 1492 ……. – Acquire information from school, daily life, experience

Procedural Memory • Skills, or procedures, you have learned – Throwing a ball – Riding a bike – Skipping rope – Typing or using a computer – Playing a musical instrument – Driving a car • Once learned, skill stays with you for life

The Memory Process Encoding Storage Retrieval

Encoding • The processing of information into the memory system. Typing info into a computer Getting a girls name at a party

Storage • The retention of encoded material over time. Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info. Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

Retrieval • The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Finding your document and opening it up. Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).

Encoding How do you encode the info you read in our text? Getting the information in our heads!!!!

Two ways to encode information • Automatic Processing • Effortful Processing

Automatic Processing • Unconscious encoding of incidental information. • You encode space, time, frequency and word meaning without effort. • Things can become automatic with practice. For example, if I tell you that you are pretty or handsome, you will encode the meaning of what I am saying to you without any effort.

Effortful Processing • Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. • Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique. • Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic.

Things to remember about Encoding 1. The Next-In-Line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next. 2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered. 3. Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not remember it.

Spacing Effect • We encode better when we study or practice over time. • DO NOT CRAM!!!!!

Take out a piece of paper and…. List the U. S. Presidents Hint: 45 so far

The Presidents Washington J. Adams Taylor Fillmore Harrison Cleveland Eisenhower Kennedy Jefferson Madison Monroe JQ Adams Jackson Van Buren Harrison Tyler Polk Pierce Buchanan Lincoln A. Johnson Grant Hayes Garfield Arthur Cleveland Mc. Kinley T. Roosevelt Taft Wilson Harding Coolidge Hoover FD. Roosevelt Truman L. Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagan Bush Clinton Bush Jr. Obama Trump

Now try this one: Identify the gifts in “The Twelve Days of Christmas” • • • l Partridge, 2 Turtle Doves, 3 French Hens, 4 Calling Birds, 5 Golden Rings, 6 Geese A-laying, 7 Swans A-swimming, 8 Maids A-milking, 9 Ladies Dancing, 10 Lords A-leaping, 11 Pipers Piping, and 12 Drummers Drumming.

Serial Positioning Effect • Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Items Recalled If we graph how well an average person remembers presidential list or the gifts-- it would probably look something like this.

Serial Positioning Effect • Primacy Effect: remember the first few items in a list • Recency Effect: remember the last items in a list

Types of Encoding • Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words • Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. • Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.

Which type works best?

Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Not all thinking is in the form of concepts • Mental Imageryrepresentations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality • Try this: Tell me as fast as you can how many windows are in the place you live? Shout it out when you have determined a number. • .

Try This: • • • Tell me as fast as you can how many windows are in the place you live? Shout it out! Usually you will find that the first people to shout an answer have fewer windows in their homes than those who take longer. You might notice that people will look up, as if looking at an image that only they can see. If asked, they will say that to determine the number of windows was determined by a “walk through” of their home. Reference: Ciccarelli, Saundra and White, J. Nolan, AP Edition Psychology, 2 nd Ed.

Tricks to Encode • Use imagery: mental pictures Mnemonic Devices use imagery. "Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums. " Mars, Venus, Earth, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto. HOMES Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior Give me some more examples….

Keyword method of mnemonics • In the keyword method you think of a word that sounds like all or part of the word to be remembered. • Then you create a scenario involving the associated word and the definition of the word-to-be-remembered. (remember parts of the brain? ? Michael Brit) • One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, etc. . (pegwords)

Chunking • Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. • Often it will occur automatically. 1 -4 -9 -2 -1 -7 -7 -6 -1 -8 -1 -2 -1 -9 -4 -1 Do these numbers mean anything to you? 1492, 1776, 1812, 1941 how about now? Chunk- from Goonies

Chunking 1, 3 and 5 make little sense to us. But when we chunk the characters differently (2, 4, 6) they become easy to remember.

Storage How we retain the information we encode

Three Stages of Memory (Storage) Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

Sensory Registers form memories • Iconic memory—snapshots—ability to remember visual memories – Lasts about ¼ second, as soon as you shift your attention, the information disappears – Eidetic imagery photographic memory • Echoic memory—sounds acoustic codes – Last longer than visual codes (1 -2 seconds) • Olfactory memory—smells childhood memories generally associated with certain smells – Most vivid memories – Remember why? ? ?

Short-Term Memory • Memory that holds a few items briefly. • Chunking Seven digits (plus or minus two). • The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten. How do you store things from short-term to long-term? Rehearsal: • Maintenance üRepetition üMemorization • Elaborative ügive meaning You must repeat things over and over to put them into your long-term memory.

Working Memory (Modern day STM) • Another way of describing the use of short -term memory is called working memory. – Begins to fade within several seconds unless rehearsed – Causes: interference – Limited capacity overload

Storage and Short-Term Memory • Lasts usually between 3 to 12 seconds. • Can store 7 (plus or minus two) chunks of information. • We recall digits better than letters.

Long-Term Memory • The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Storage: Long-Term Memory § How does storage work? § Karl Lashley (1950) § rats learn maze § lesion cortex § test memory § Synaptic changes § Long-term Potentiation § increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation § Strong emotions make for stronger memories § some stress hormones boost learning and retention

How does our brain store long-term memories? • Memories do NOT reside in single specific spots of our brain. • They are not electrical (if the electrical activity were to shut down in your brain, then restartyou would NOT start with a blank slate).

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) • The current theory of how our long-term memory works. • Memory has a neural basis. • LTP is an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. In other words, if you are trying to remember a phone number, the neurons are firing neurotransmitters through the synapse. The neuron gets used to firing in that pattern and essentially learns to fire in that distinct way. It is a form of rehearsal (but for our neurons).

Stress and Memory • Stress can lead to the release of hormones that have been shown to assist in LTM. • Similar to the idea of Flashbulb Memory.

Types of LTM

The Hippocampus • Damage to the hippocampus disrupts our memory. • Left = Verbal • Right = Visual and Locations • The hippocampus is the like the librarian for the library which is our brain. • Still may create memories if hippocampus is damaged – Cerebellum plays a key role in forming and storing implicit memories created through classical conditioning • Dual explicit-implicit memory system explains infantile amnesia – Reactions and skills learned in infancy reach into the future recall nothing from first three years – Conscious minds are blank, hippocampus one of the last brain structure to develop

Retrieval How do we recall the information we thought we remembered? Lets Jog Our Memory!!!!!!!

Retrieval Cues • Things that help us remember. – To retrieve specific memory, need to identify one of the strands that leads to it, process called priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory • We often use a process called priming (the activation of associations in our memory) to help us retrieve information. –photographs, often prime one’s memories for earlier experiences –smells, or sounds may have the same effect

PRIMING EFFECT • Priming effect occurs when people respond faster or better to an item if a similar item preceded it. • For the most part, the priming effect is considered involuntary and is most likely an unconscious phenomenon. The priming effect basically consists of repetition priming and semantic priming.

Repetition Priming 1. Repetition priming refers to the fact that it is easier (quicker) to recognize a face or word if you have recently seen that same face or word.

Semantic Priming 2. Semantic priming refers to the fact that it is easier (quicker) to recognize someone or word if you have just seen someone or a word closely associated.

Priming

Context Dependent Memory • It helps to put yourself back in the same context you experienced (encoded) something. • If you study on your favorite chair at home, you will probably score higher if you also took the test on the chair. • That eerie sense that you have experienced something before.

§ Deja Vu (French)--already seen § cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience § "I've experienced this before. "

State Dependent Memory • Things we learn in one state (joyful, sad, drunk, sober, etc) are more easily recalled when in same state • Mood-Congruent Memory – The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. – If you are depressed, you will more likely recall sad memories from your past. – Moods also affect that way you interpret other people’s behavior

Forgetting

Encoding Failure

Encoding Failure • We fail to encode the information. • It never has a chance to enter our LTM.

Deep vs. Shallow Processing • Shallow processing • Examples– Draw a penny (may not “work” • maintenance anymore due to so many new rehearsal pennies. – What color is the top stripe of • Involves simple the American Flag? repetition of the presented materials – The bottom stripe? – How many of each color? • Not effective – In what hand does the Statue of encoding Liberty hold her torch? – The White House is on the back of a $20. What is on the back of a $10? A $5? A $1?

Answers • Examples– Draw a penny (may not “work” anymore due to so many new pennies. – What color is the top stripe of the American Flag? – The bottom stripe? – How many of each color? – In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch? – The White House is on the back of a $20. What is on the back of a $10? A $5? A $1? • There are many “new” pennies now and this activity is difficult to “prove. ” • • • RED 7 red and 6 white RIGHT $10 Treasury Dept. , $5 Lincoln Memorial, $1 The word ONE

Test Your Memory Which is the real penny?

Storage Decay • Even if we encode something well, we can forget it. • Without rehearsal, we forget thing over time. • Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve.

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Forgetting § The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Percentage of 100% original 90 vocabulary 80 retained Retention drops, 70 then levels off 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course

Retrieval Failure • The memory was encoded and stored, but sometimes you just cannot access the memory. – Elapse of time – Inattention

Types of Retrieval Failure Proactive Interference • The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

Types of Retrieval Failure Retroactive Interference • The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. When you finally remember this years locker combination, you forget last years.

Forgetting as Interference

Motivated Forgetting Why does it exist? One explanation is REPRESSION: • in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness. • Increasing memory researchers think repression occurs rarely

Forgetting

Memory Construction • We sometimes alter our memories as we encode or retrieve them. • Your expectations, schemas, environment may alter your memories.

Reliability of Reconstructed Memories • Memories are not recorded like movies – Instead reconstructed from bits an pieces of our experiences • Shaped by personal and individual views of the world Elizabeth Loftus & Eyewitness Testimony – Two people experience same event will recall it differently • Eyewitness accounts • Claims of abuse

Misinformation Effect Depiction of Accident

Misinformation Effect Leading Question: About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

Source Amnesia (Source Attribution) • Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about or imagined.

Unusual Forms of Forgetting • Infantile Amnesia – – Don’t remember anything before age 3 Neural connections are immature (hippocampus) Life not that stimulating YET Unable to use language to encode events • Temporary Amnesia – Memory loss due to a blow to the head, electric shock, brain surgery (lose explicit memories rather than implicit ones) – Lose memory of events that took place both before and after the trauma – Memories may or may not return once healing takes place

• Anterograde amnesia – Damage from trauma that prevents a person from making new memories – Damage to the hippocampus • Retrograde amnesia – Forget the period leading up to a traumatic event – May be unable to recall years before the event • Total amnesia – Complete memory loss – Rare • Amnesia and Fugue – Memory loss – Individual moves to another area and begins a new life

Why is senile dementia called Alzheimer’s Disease? At a scientific meeting in November 1906, German physician Alois Alzheimer presented the case of “Frau Auguste D. , ” a 51 -year-old woman brought to see him in 1901 by her family. Auguste had developed problems with memory, unfounded suspicions that her husband was unfaithful, and difficulty speaking and understanding what was said to her. Her symptoms rapidly grew worse, and within a few years she was bedridden. She died in Spring 1906. Dr. Alzheimer had never before seen anyone like Auguste D. , and he gained the family’s permission to perform an autopsy. In Auguste’s brain, he saw dramatic shrinkage, especially of the cortex, the outer layer involved in memory, thinking, judgment and speech. Under the microscope, he also saw widespread fatty deposits in small blood vessels, dead and dying brain cells, and abnormal deposits in and around cells. The condition entered the medical literature in 1907, when Alzheimer published his observations about Auguste D. In 1910, Emil Kraepelin, a psychiatrist noted for his work in naming and classifying brain disorders, proposed that the disease be named after Alzheimer. http: //www. alz. org/alzheimers_diseas e_what_is_alzheimers. asp

Alzheimer’s Disease • A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, language and physical functioning. • Runs its course in 5 to 20 years. • Deterioration of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter…. Acetylcholine Estrogen supplements may stop the onset of Alzheimer’s Disease.

Stages of Alzheimer’s Slide Show Healthy Brain Comparison Alzheimer Brain

The difference between Alzheimer's and typical age-related changes Signs of Alzheimer's Typical age-related changes Poor judgment and decision making Making a bad decision once in a while Inability to manage a budget Missing a monthly payment Losing track of the date or the season Forgetting which day it is and remembering later Difficulty having a conversation Sometimes forgetting which word to use Misplacing things and being unable to retrace steps to find them Losing things from time to time