Syntax Definition of Syntax Types of Grammar Hierarchical

Syntax Definition of Syntax Types of Grammar Hierarchical Structure I. III. A. B. C. D. Tree diagram Phrase structure rules Recursiveness Deep/surface structure Universal Grammar IV. A. B. Principles Parameters Yun-Pi Yuan 1

Definition of Syntax (1) l l “syntaxis” (Greek) = “arrangement” The rules of sentence formation; the study of the structure of sentences. Language Structure Phonology Grammar morphology Semantics syntax (more traditional) Yun-Pi Yuan 2

Definition of Syntax (2) Popularized by Chomsky (the general sense) Grammar Phonology (Morphology) Syntax Semantics Yun-Pi Yuan 3

II. Types of Grammar A. Mental Grammar: Internal linguistic knowledge (in the mind) B. Developmental Grammar: a learner’s grammar C. Prescriptive Grammar: a set of prescribed rules which tells people how to speak/write D. Descriptive Grammar: how people do speak in actual utterances. E. Pedagogical Grammar: teaching grammar widely used in schools Yun-Pi Yuan 4

A. Mental Grammar: Internal linguistic knowledge Grammar Phonology (Morphology) Syntax Semantics Linguistic knowledge in the mind l Here, we’ll just consider grammatical knowledge as structural knowledge; but NOTE you also must know how to USE the structural knowledge. l Yun-Pi Yuan 5

Grammar mental grammar ling. etiquette (psycholing. view) the nature of lang. (sociologist’s view) Internal ling. knowledge social attitudes (what goes on in lang. and values user’s mind; sub(proper or best conscious, not result structures to be of any teaching) used in a lang. ) prescriptive Yun-Pi Yuan (ling. view in general) a description of the grammar (study and analysis of the structures found in a lang. ) descriptive 6

B. Developmental Grammar: a learner’s grammar The mental grammar in the developmental stage l Type of lang. produced by learners who are in the process of learning a language. l “errors” in the language use of a L 1 or L 2 learner; which is the result of a normal pattern of development, and is common among language learners. l e. g. “comed, ” “goed, ” “breaked” l Overgeneralizations: a natural or developmental stage in lang. learning. Yun-Pi Yuan 7

C. Prescriptive Grammar: a set of prescribed rules which tells people how to speak/write; socially corrected use of lang. l. A set of “rules” about how you SHOULD speak or write; gives judgments on which structures are CORRECT and which are INCORRECT l Their influence lives on in the handbook of usage widely found today. e. g. double negative(=affirmative), *ain’t *it’s me, ending sentences with preposition (*Who are you talking to? ) Yun-Pi Yuan 8

D. Descriptive Grammar: how people do speak in actual utterances l Linguistic description of the structures of a language as they are observed to be used, with no evaluation (non-judgmental) of social correctness. l Collins Cobuild dictionary example—huge corpus analyzed and described e. g. Either of the dictionaries are/is good. (but should be “is” according to prescriptive view) e. g. Neither of the books were/was a good buy. Yun-Pi Yuan 9

E. Pedagogical Grammar: teaching grammars widely used in schools A “teaching grammar”—designed for developing NS students’ awareness of their mother tongue, or for teaching a language as a foreign language. l Selection from mental grammar to present to learners l Often a combination of descriptive & prescriptive grammars; more contemporary pedagogical grammars moving away from prescriptive. l e. g. M. Swam. Practical English Usage or a textbook ; a grammar book. Yun-Pi Yuan 10

III. Hierarchical Structure (1) Concepts of hierarchy e. g. 1: John is easy to please John is eager to please Q: Do the two sentences have the same sentence structure (the same syntax)? Paraphrase: It’s easy for somebody to please John is eager to please somebody. A. Yun-Pi Yuan 11

III. Hierarchical Structure (2) Analogy: A. “university” school board, principle, vice presidents, dean of academic affairs, dean of student affairs, dean of general affairs, dean of research and development, dean of each college, dept. chairs…. B. “country” president, vice- president, legistrative yuan (立法院), executive yuan (行政院), control yuan (監察院), judicial yuan (司法院). l Yun-Pi Yuan 12

University School board President, Vice presidents 教務長 學務長 總務長 研發長 外語 理 文 法 民生 醫 管理 藝 社科 院長 院長 : : 系主任 院長 院長 : : 系主任 系主任 系主 Yun-Pi Yuan 任 13

country president legistrative yuan (立法院) : vice- president executive yuan (行政院) : Yun-Pi Yuan control yuan (監察院) : judicial yuan (司法院) : 14

Hierarchy l Hilary couldn’t open the windows. VP NP sentence phrases words morphemes Constituent: part that makes up something; a linguistic unit which is part of a larger construction. l e. g. Can you identify the construction and constituents in the sentence, “the boy jumped”? l Yun-Pi Yuan 15

III. Hierarchical Structure (3) Modal of syntactic investigation: Five-rank hierarchy (Crystal 95) Sentences are analyzed into are used to build Clauses are analyzed into are used to build Phrases are analyzed into are used to build Words are analyzed into are used to build Morphemes Yun-Pi Yuan Morphemes 16

Upward Expansion l Phrases l e. g. cars the big cars all the big cars in the garage (premodification) l Upward (head) (postmodification) expansion: Tom couldn’t find his notes, and Davie couldn’t find his textbook, and (repeat the structure). . . but he still lectured for three hours. Several units of the same type then we have clauses Yun-Pi Yuan 17

Hierarchy l Another way to look at “hierarchies”: construction and constituents l The young must respect the old people. (A) the young (C) the (B) must respect the old people (D) young (G) must (E) must respect (H) respect (F) the old people (I) the (J) old people (K) old Yun-Pi Yuan (L) people 18

Clauses Clause Types: l S+V (The dog + is running) S+V+O (The dog + bites + him) S+V+C (The car + is + ready) S+V+A (The picture + lays +on the ground) S+V+O+O (I + give + him + a pen) S+V+O+C (He + calls + John a fool) S+V+O+A (Mary + saw + John +yesterday) l Note: subject (S), verb (V), complement (C), object (O), adverbial (A). l l l Yun-Pi Yuan 19

Formats of the Hierarchy l Tree Diagrams: different levels in analysis l Phrase Structure (in tree diagrams) l Recursiveness (Recursion) l Deep and Surface Structure Yun-Pi Yuan 20

1. Tree Diagrams (1) “The girl chased the dog. ” (Crystal 96) a. b. c. The girl chased the dog Identify the 2 major constituents (The girl + chased the dog) Divide the next-biggest constituent into 2: chased + the dog Continue dividing constituents into 2 until we can go no further. e. g. the + girl, the + dog, chase + -ed l At each level, a structure is divided into its major constituents (and the process continues). . . Yun-Pi Yuan 21

1. Tree Diagrams (2) Tree Diagrams: Different levels in analysis l The tree diagram format may be viewed as: l a. b. A static representation of the structure of the sentence at the bottom of the diagram. A dynamic format, representing a way of “generating” a very large number of sentences with similar structures (by the use of phrase structure rules). Yun-Pi Yuan 22

2. Phrase Structure S NP ART (DET) VP N V NP ART the girl chased Yun-Pi Yuan N the dog 23

Phrase Structure Rules (1) l Phrase structure rules (Nash 75 -77): present the information of the tree diagram in an alternative format S S NP + VP or NP VP VP V + (NP) + (PP) + (ADV) NP (ART) + (ADJ)* N PRO PP P + NP l Note: see (Yule 105) for symbols and abbreviations definition. Yun-Pi Yuan 24

Phrase Structure Rules (2) l They are descriptions, not prescriptive rules. l They show a sentence can be broken up into its various parts, and how each part can be expanded. l The structure of a sentence can be illustrated by a tree diagram. Yun-Pi Yuan 25

3. Recursiveness (Recursion) Recursive rule: VP VS (Yule 107; 108 for diagram) e. g. : John said [ Cathy thought (Mary helped George)]. l Another e. g. of recursiveness The Rose in My Garden l http: //www. eng. fju. edu. tw/yunpi/2004_2005/linguistics/index. html This is the rose in my garden. This is the bee that sleeps on the rose in my garden. These are the holly hocks high above ground, that give shade to the bee that sleeps on the rose in my garden. Yun-Pi Yuan 26

4. Deep and Surface Structure (1) l Deep and surface structure: “the form of a sentence we produce and understand is very often not the same as the basic form which shows its meaning” (Nash 79) (also see Yule 102) A. Deep Structure: the abstract, underlying level, but basic form of the sentence B. Surface Structure: the superficial, syntactic form that we produce in reality e. g. old men and women e. g. Annie whacked a man with an umbrella. (Yule 103) same surface structure form, two underlying interpretations (deep structures) Other examples: 1. Look! (What’s the subject? How do you know? ) 2. *Help herself. (What’s wrong? How do you know? ) Yun-Pi Yuan 27

Deep and Surface Structure (2) The runner broke the world record. // The world record was broken by the runner. 3. • o o Constituents relations remain the same. How do we know? To begin to answer questions like these, we first have to go to another idea: “the form of a sentence we produce and understand is very often not the same as the basic form which shows its meaning” (Nash 79). Yun-Pi Yuan 28

Deep and Surface Structure (2) l The form we produce is called the surface structure. The basic form is called the deep structure. We need the next step in TGG (Transformational-generative Grammar) to describe how the deep structure is changed into the surface structure. l Transformational rules: rules which describe these changes (see Yule 108 e. g. ) Yun-Pi Yuan 29

Transformational-generative Grammar Transformational Generative Grammar: (used to explain how deep structure surface structure) e. g. 1. Imperative Transformation e. g. 2. Reflexive Transformation and Imperative Transformation e. g. 3. Passive Transformation e. g. 4. Particle Movement Yun-Pi Yuan 30

Transformational-generative grammar l Transformations: processes that change the deep structure into surface structure. l Generative: using phrase structure rules, we can produce (generate) infinite sentences. l E. g. 1: Surface Structure: S NP VP V eat Yun-Pi Yuan NP ART N the chou tofu 31

Imperative Transformation l Deep Structure: S NP VP pro V NP ART N imperative transformation surface structure (see slide #32) you eat the Yun-Pi Yuan chou tofu 32

Reflective Transformation l E. g. 2: surface structure: Help yourself! l Deep Structure: S S NP VP reflexive NP VP pro V NP transformation pro V NP pro (reflexive pro) you help yourself (When two NPs in the same simple sentence are identical, convert the 2 nd of the identical NPs into the corresponding reflexive pronoun; I. e. , yourself) Yun-Pi Yuan 33

Imperative Transformation S NP Pro VP V imperative NP transformation (reflexive pro) You help Help yourself Yun-Pi Yuan 34

Important Criteria l Transformation: important criteria A. Some transformations are required; some are optional. e. g. “Help yourself!” reflexive transformation is required. imperative transformation is optional. B. Transformation is in a certain order (when more than one is applied). 1. Reflective 2. imperative Yun-Pi Yuan 35

Passive Transformation l E. g. , 3: l Passive transformation NP 1 V NP 2 (changes it into) NP 2 BE V-EN BY NP 1 e. g. The runner broke the world record. The world record was broken by the runner. (Nash 82) Yun-Pi Yuan 36

Particle Movement l E. g. 4: Particle movement l NP Verb Particle NP Verb NP Particle l Phrase structure tree diagram (see Yule 109) l S l NP VP l V NP l Vb part Art N l Doobie picked up the Yun-Pi Yuan magazine 37

Transformational Process (1) In this process: won’t change the relationship and the meaning of the sentence 1. Combination e. g. : You have You’ve 2. Substitution e. g. : Yourself 3. Deletion e. g. : You X (in imperatives) 4. Movement e. g. : Put…on Put on… 5. Addition e. g. : relative clause (skip this since too complicated) l Yun-Pi Yuan 38

Transformational Process (2) l Transformations never change the relations among elements/constituents (e. g. , agent, receiver) in the deep structure, and they NEVER change (semantic) meaning. l They are processes by which deep structures are converted into surface structures. Yun-Pi Yuan 39

Important Contribution of TGG l The deep—surface structure idea = a very important contribution. l Not everything we know about a sentence is revealed in the actual form we produce—the surface structure. We must look for deeper structural information. l The farmer planted the rice. The rice was planted by the farmer. same meaning, though different structures. Yun-Pi Yuan 40

Problems of TGG 1. Theory is unwieldy. (too cumbersome, too clumsy—too many transformations) 2. Not universal (It’s language specific, not conform to all languages). 3. Psychologically unreal (Semantics should be applied first, then comes the syntax) (Nash 83, summary) Yun-Pi Yuan 41

Language Ambiguity 1. Sentence/structural Ambiguity: e. g. : Visiting relatives can be a nuisance. 2. Word Ambiguity: e. g. : The man put his straw on the floor. Yun-Pi Yuan 42

Ambiguity l Children are nice to understand. 1. It’s nice for someone to understand children. l 2. It’s nice for children to understand something. l D-structure: l l Children are nice [ Ø to understand Ø ] l D-structure: l Children are nice [ Ø to understand Ø ] Yun-Pi Yuan 43

D-Structure and S-Structure (1) Definition: D-structure—in which the basic order of phrases is represented. S-structure—in which the actual linear order of phrases is observed; deep structure positions of phrases are represented by empty categories. l What will Frances drink [Ø] ? l l Drano, he drank [Ø] ! Yun-Pi Yuan 44

D-Structure and S-Structure (2) l Drano, he drank! ¡ This kind of sentence deviate from the normal order of sentences, but the invisible position is still there. ¡ In the surface structure, there’re invisible positions, but they must be filled up in deep structure. ¡ Sentences that deviate from the basic word order are understood by reference to a more abstract structure in which the basic word order is represented D-structure Yun-Pi Yuan 45

D-Structure and S-Structure (3) l The “derivation” of a sentence involves changing D-structure into S-structure, by moving elements from their D-structure positions; the relationship between moved elements and their underlying position is represented by placing an identical index on the two. (e. g. , NPi – ti) Yun-Pi Yuan 46

D-structure i =identical index S S NPi NP VP N V NP N N Drano he drank Drano S-structure S S NP VP N V NP he drank ti T= trace “an inaudible copy of the moved NP is left in the D-structure position of the moved phrase” Yun-Pi Yuan 47

I = inflection node; a syntactic position associated with some morphological features (e. g. , tense) and some auxiliary verbs, such as modals D-structure S S NP I l l S-structure S NPj S VP Willi N V S NP I N NP N Frances will drink what VP V NP What Frances ti drink tj (Movement) Yun-Pi Yuan 48

TGG vs. UG l TGG (Transformational Generative Grammar): ¡ ¡ l The formulation of individual rules of grammar A great many transformational rules to convert (link) deep to surface structures UG (Universal Grammar) ¡ ¡ The formulation of general principles from which the properties of particular grammatical phenomena will follow Difference between D- and S-structure levels reduced to the results of a single general operation: movement (what can move, and where to, are motivated and restricted by the principles of grammar). Yun-Pi Yuan 49

IV. Universal Grammar l Definition: ¡ “a set of limits” on the form of mental grammars. ¡ The limits on the form that human grammar can take l Two kinds of limits: 1. Principles: invariant principles which dictate the form grammars can take. (will apply to every lang. in the same way, but details vary) 2. Parameters: strictly defined possibilities of variation across languages. (There is limited number in choices) Yun-Pi Yuan 50

Principles (1) l E. g. of principles: subjacency l No constituent can be moved over more than one bounding category ¡ Bounding category in Eng. : S (sentence) & NP l. A constraint on movement rules at the Sstructure level l A set of universal constraints on movement Yun-Pi Yuan 51

Principles (2) What did Sue destroy? What [S did Sue destroy Ø] *What did Sue destroy a book about? s NP * What did [Sue destroy [a book about Ø] Yun-Pi Yuan 52

Principles (3) S [(That all of us but you were upset) is obvious. ] S [(That all of us were upset) but you is obvious. ] S S *[(That all of us were upset) is obvious] but you. l Subjacency principle: an element can move only over one layer of structure; that is, it can move only from a layer that is subordinate and adjacent. Yun-Pi Yuan 53

Principles (4) S S [(John saw a horse) that kicked a box. ] S S *[(What did John see a horse) that kicked Ø]? S [What did John see a horse kick Ø? ] Yun-Pi Yuan 54

Parameters (1) l Definition: ¡ Any of the established limits within which something must operate. [dictionary definition] ¡ Strictly defined possibilities of variation across languages. ¡ A range of possibilities and languages choose within that range: every language must set its parameters. l What’s the difference between principles and parameters? Yun-Pi Yuan 55

Parameters (2) l An example: l Pro-drop (an overt pronominal subject is dropped/optional): subjectless sentences English: I am going to the cinema. *Am going to the cinema. Spanish: Yo voy al cine. Italian: Io vado al cinema. (I go to the movies. ) Vado al cinema. Yun-Pi Yuan 56

Parameters (3) l More Spanish/Eng. examples: A. Salieron a las ocho. *“Left at eight. ” (They left at eight. ) B. LloviÓ mucho ayer. *“Rained a lot yesterday. ” (It rained a lot yesterday. ) l Free subject-verb inversion: Han llegado mis estudiantes. *“Have arrived my students. ” (My students have arrived. ) Yun-Pi Yuan 57

Parameters (4) l+ pro-drop or – pro-drop languages: ¡ Spanish l Both & Italian are pro-drop languages. ¡ What about English? ¡ Chinese? Examples? l 下雨了！ Yun-Pi Yuan 58

Conclusion (1) l UG: the linguistic system involves rules too abstract and complex to be learned without the aid of innate knowledge about the nature of the system. . The child is equipped with a set of blueprints that define and limit what a human language can be like. Yun-Pi Yuan 59

Conclusion (2) l The child is assumed to be biologically equipped with knowledge of universal grammar—the basics of lang. structure. The child has blueprints for all the possible types of lang. in her head. In the course of lang. development she settles on the particular grammar of the language surrounding her. Yun-Pi Yuan 60

Conclusion (3) l The primary role of UG in language development is to limit the hypotheses that a child can form concerning the rules of his language, thus also limiting errors and helping explain the speed and ease with which language is learned. Yun-Pi Yuan 61