Semantic Changes Changes of lexical meaning Or transfer

Semantic Changes

Changes of lexical meaning Or transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word remains unaffected while the inner aspect (the meaning) is changed.

Causes of semantic changes Extra-linguistic (inventions, change of instrumental application, etc.) Intra-linguistic (conflict of synonyms which results from borrowing of perfect synonyms, ellipses, etc.)

Extra-linguistic causes Pen (from Latin «penna» - a feather of a bird) was primarily applied for goose pens, later the meaning was transferred to steel pens, now the word is used for naming any object used for writing

Intra-linguistic causes (conflict of synonyms) Tide: a polysemantic word in Old English denoting «time, season, hour» After the French words «time, season, hour» were borrowed into English they ousted the word «tide» in these meanings and made it develop a specialized meaning of «regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon»

Intra-linguistic causes (ellipsis) The modern word «train» developed from an earlier word-group «a train of carriages» where «train» stood for the «row (of carriages)» The «of carriages»-part of the combination was then dropped and the word «train» extended its meaning being now used in the function of the whole group

Classification of semantic changes Was worked out by a German linguist Herman Paul in his work «Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte»

Classification of semantic changes Is based on the logical principle and includes the following classes: A class of gradual semantic change – specialization and generalization A class of momentary conscious semantic change – metaphor and metonymy A secondary class – elevation and degradation, hyperbole and litotes

Specialization Is defined as the «narrowing» of the word meaning and may involve the following processes:

Specialization A word passes from a general sphere of communication to some special sphere: «Case» (the general use) – circumstances in which a person or thing is «Case» (law) – a lawsuit, (grammar) – a form in the paradigm of a noun, (medicine) – a patient or illness, etc.

Specialization A word remains in the general usage but is involved into a conflict of synonyms «Meat» used to have a meaning of «food» (the meaning is retained by the compound «sweetmeats»), the meaning of «edible flesh» was formed when the word «food» won the conflict of absolute synonyms «Starve» used to have a meaning of «die», the meaning of «die of hunger» was formed when the word «die» (a Scandinavian borrowing) won the conflict of absolute synonyms

Specialization A proper noun may be formed from a common noun (a frequent case in toponymics): the City, the Tower, the Tube, the Pencil, etc. Ellipsis of a word-group (formation of a noun from a word-group of «attribute + noun»): «room» (in the meaning of «space») now means «space used for a particular purpose»: dining room, living-room, bedroom, etc.

Generalization Is defined as the «broadening» of the word meaning and may involve the following processes:

Generalization Transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one: Ready (prepared for a drive) vs prepared fro anything Journey (one-day trip) vs a trip of any duration

Generalization All auxiliary verbs are cases of generalization of their lexical meaning (they developed a grammatical meaning): have, be, do, shall, will, etc. «I have several books by Jane Austin» vs «I have read some books by Jane Austin»

Metaphor Is defined as a transfer of meaning on the basis of comparison

Metaphor (types of similarity) Similarity of shape: head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, comb, etc.) Similarity of position: foot (of a page or mountain), head (of a procession) Similarity of function or behaviour: a whip (an official in the British Parliament seeing to the presence and participation in voting of the MPs), a bookworm, etc. Similarity of colour: orange, hazel, chestnut, etc.

Metaphor (types of similarity) Complex similarity: leg (of a table) – shape + position + function

Special types of metaphors Metaphors based on parts of a human body: eye (of a needle), arms and mouth (of a river), head of an army Proper names become common nouns: philistine, vandal, a Don Juan, a Don Quixote, etc.

Metonymy Is defined as a transfer of meaning on the basis of contiguity

Metonymy (types of contiguity) Name of material – name of the object it is made of: a glass, an iron, boards, etc. Name of place – name of people / objects located there: the House (members of the Parliament), Fleet Street (press), the White House, etc. Name of a musical instrument – names of musicians united in an orchestra: the violin, the saxophone, the piano, etc.

Metonymy (types of contiguity) Name of a person – a common noun: boycott, sandwich, silhouette, etc. Name of an inventor – name of his invention (unit of measurement): watt, om, roentgen etc. Geographical name – a common noun: holland (linen fabric), Brussels (a special kind of carpets), china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur), etc.

Secondary ways of semantic change: Elevation Is transfer of the word meaning which involves a positive change in association with the referent Knight (boy – military servant – nobleman) Marshal (servant looking after horses – the highest military rank) Queen (woman – noble woman, head of state)

Degradation Is transfer of the word meaning which involves a negative change in association with the referent Vulgar (from «common») Villain (from «working on a villa»

Hyperbole Is transfer of the word meaning based on exaggeration: Hate (dislike) For ages (not to see someone for ages) Kill (of a pain) Nightmare (of a thing, action, business) Thousand (a thousand pardons)

Litotes Is transfer of the word meaning when the speaker expresses the affirmative with the negative or vice versa: Not bad No coward Not half as important

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