Sanitation Wastes disposal l L V Maksimenko Ph

Sanitation/ Wastes disposal. l L. V. Maksimenko Ph. D. in Biological Sciences Associate Professor Maksimenko Ludmila Vitalievna 1 Department of Public Health and Hygiene

I. Sanitation/ Wastes disposal • Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes as well as the treatment and proper disposal of sewage or wastewater. • Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of diseases. • WHO: Water and sanitation improvements, in association with hygiene behavior change, can have significant effects on population and health by reducing a variety of disease conditions such as diarrhea, intestinal helminths, guinea worm, and skin diseases. These improvements in health can, in turn, lead to reduced morbidity and mortality and improved nutritional status. 2 L. V. Maksimenko

• Wastes are human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), industrial wastes and agricultural wastes. • Residential areas` wastes are classified as solid (domestic, street, market, stable litter, ash, industrial), liquid (sewage effluent, street runoff - rainfall, snow, industrial). • Sanitation facilities are classified as local government or centralized. • Hygienic prevention of disease caused by pollution of populated places: 1) engineering solutions (e. g. sewerage and wastewater treatment), 2) simple technologies (e. g. latrines, septic tanks), 3) personal hygiene practices (e. g. simple handwashing with soap). L. V. Maksimenko 3

UNISEF Programme WASH: Water, Sanitation, Hygiene • The fourstep ‘sanitation ladder’ 4

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Municipal solid waste (norms: 0. 25 -2. 5 kg/day*persone) 1) Garbage (food wastes) 2) Rubbish (paper, plastics, wood, metal, throwaway containers, glass) 3) Sewage treatment residue (sludge, solid from the coarse screening of domestic sewage) 4) Dead animals corps 5) Manure and other discorded materials • So Municipal solid waste include all types of waste excluding nightsoil. L. V. Maksimenko 6

Dangers arising from MSW 1) It decomposes and favours flу breeding. 2) It attracts rodents and vermin. 3) The pathogens may be conveyed back to man's food through flies and dust. 4) There is a possibility of water and soil pollution. 5) Heaps of refuse present an unsightly appearance and disgusting smell. 6) There is a correlation between a proper disposal of MSW and vector-born diseases. 7

1 stage – initial collection/ storage of MSW • 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Containers for household waste include: Paper or plastic sac Galvanized steel or plastic dust been with close fitting cover Public bin Waste Receptacles and Trash Cans Trash Container with Sand Rim and so on. L. V. Maksimenko 8

2 stage – collection system • House-to-house system (from house to special transport directly) • Collection of MSW from public containers. • Dust-carts: a) Open refuse cart (lorry) b) Enclosed refuse van c) Dustless refuse collector (totally enclosed body) L. V. Maksimenko 9

3 stage – Disposition Methods of SMW disposal 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Damping Controlled tripping (sanitary land fill) Incineration Composting Manure pits Burial L. V. Maksimenko 10

Insanitary disposal • Fly Tipping, the illegal disposal of controlled waste, is a criminal offence • Dumping (legal, but the most insanitary method) – Damping ground (low lying areas) – gully, bog – The aim is reclamation of lands (due to the formation of humus from the waste, subject to pre-sorting and separation of metal, plastic and glass L. V. Maksimenko materials) 11

Sanitary disposal of SW • Controlled tripping (sanitary landfill) – MSW are placed in a prepared area – adequately compacted – coved with earth (or with construction or industrial solid wastes, which do not contain organic) at the end of every working day: • Trench method • Ramp method (on moderately sloping area) • Area method Modified sanitary landfill (covering are accomplished once or twice a week) L. V. Maksimenko 12

The Landfill Salaryevo (Moscow, Southwestern District) The distance to the Moscowring road - 3 km L. V. Maksimenko 13

Organic matter burial cattle (1), pets (2), unknown people - Hobo (3) L. V. Maksimenko 14

Composting is the method of combined disposal of refuse and nightsoil or sludge • Hot fermentation process (anaerobic composting) – 600, from 2 -3 weeks to 46 months • Mechanical composting with aeration after clearing of the salvageable materials (rags, bones, metal, glass), processing of the row organic materials, mixing by a spade L. V. Maksimenko 15

Night soil composting L. V. Maksimenko 16

Manure pit 1. Classic method - in special pits bounded by soil rampart 2. Modern manure storage - in special watertight containers • • • In any case it is covered with soil, disinfected, isolated. The pit bottom must be insulated to prevent penetration of liquids into the groundwater and soil contamination L. V. Maksimenko 17

Incineration i. Open Burning ii. Incineration at waste incineration plants A global problem - formation of dioxins during incineration of PVC in waste – is difficult to solve Dioxins are superecotoxicants of 20 century, absolutely persistent in the environment, toxic and carcinogenic. Incineration of plastic bottles, using it as fuel for the furnace when cooking is a direct way of environmental pollution by dioxins. The broadest distribution of cancers is associated with soil & water pollution by dioxins. L. V. Maksimenko 18

Modern incinerators • Modern incinerators should allow waste pre-sorting to remove plastic (and metal) and the temperature of ≥ 12000 C to burn dioxins to carbon dioxide CO 2. • Gaseous emissions from the plants should be completely cleaned. 19

Recicling of PVC 20

Excreta disposal, sanitation barriers 21

Open Defecation in the World, 2012 About 14% of the world defecates in the open. This statistic masks vast differences between countries, however: almost no one defecates in the open in China, while in neighboring India, about 48% of the total population defecates in the open. 22

Systems of excreta disposal • I. Unsewered areas (local system): – Service type (conservancy system): the collection & removal of nightsoil from buckets or pail latrines by human agency, and disposed of by burying or composting. – Non-service type (sanitary latrines): bore hole latrine, dug well latrine (pit latrine), water-seal type of latrine, septic tank, aqua privy. – Latrines suitable for camps & temporary use: shallow & deep trench latrines, pit latrine, bore hole latrine. • II. Sewered areas (centralized system) = Water-carriage system and sewage: – Primary treatment (screening, removal of grit, plain sedimentation) – Secondary treatment (trickling=bio filter, activated sludge process) – Other methods (sea outfall, river outfall, sewage farming, oxidation=bio ponds) L. V. Maksimenko 23

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Pneumatic sewage tank L. V. Maksimenko 27

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Aqua privy (AP) • • • The AP functions like a septic tank. The AP consist of a water-tight chamber filled with water. Volume of AP depends on users (for a small family – 1 m 3; for public use - > 1 m 3). Nightsoil undergoes purification by anaerobic digestion. The gases are removed through a vent to atmosphere. L. V. Maksimenko 32

Chemical closet • The closet consists of a metal tank containing a disinfectant fluid with active agent. • The active agents are formaldehyde & quaternary ammonium compounds. • A harmless water dye and deodorizing substance are usually incorporated. • A seat with a cover is placed directly over the tank. • Nothing except the toilet paper should be thrown into the chemical closet. L. V. Maksimenko 33

Trench latrines (covering with the earth) Trench latrines Shallow Deep Wide Deep Length 30 cm 90 cm - 3 -3, 5 m 1. 5 m (for 100 people) Instruction The earth from the trench should be pilled up at the side. To cover faeces with 75 -90 1. 8 -2. 5 Depend on earth each time they cm m amount of use the latrine or to people post sweepers. L. V. Maksimenko 34

The simplest home latrine – a pot with covering with ash • It is necessary to cover faeces with the ash each time after using of the latrine. The mixture should be place to the domestic composting hill. L. V. Maksimenko 35

Water carriage system Elements: ü Household sanitary fitting (plumbing system building): v. Water closet, v. Urinal or wash basing ü House sewers (10→ 15 cm) ü Street sewers or trunk sewers (22, 5 cm → 2 -3 m) = collector ü Sewer appurtenances: manholes, traps… L. V. Maksimenko 36

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Household sanitary fitting • Water closets: 1. squatting type, 2. western commode type. • Water lock L. V. Maksimenko 38

Street sewers or trunk sewers (22, 5 cm → 2 -3 m) • The street sewer is the collector of cleared effluent. • The collector is the huge pipe laying on a concrete pillow under the ground along all streets and highways of a occupied place. A level of its bedding below a level of a pipe of water supply system on 1, 5 m. L. V. Maksimenko 39

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• The Base is biological decomposition of faeces by anaerobic & aerobic bacteria. • BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) - the main indicator of the purity of wastewater. • BOD of the sewage water before treatment is 300 mg/l (of usual water - 1 mg/l). • Stages: • I. Primary treatment: – Screen = a filtration for separation of the large firm impurities (a cloth, cotton, wool, matches, rags, masses of garbage…) – Grit Chamber (long narrow horizontal chamber; detritus chamber) = a settlement of heavier solids (sand, gravel): length of the grit chamber is 10 -20 m, velocity 0, 3 m/ sec. – Primary sedimentation tank (a very large rectangular tank) = during 6 -8 hours a settlement of sludge on 70%, reduction of coliform bacteria numbers on 30 -40% take place. Acceleration of the settlement of animal protein materials may be done by treatment with chemicals such as lime, aluminium sulphate and ferrous sulphate. The scum (floated fat and grease) is removed. L. V. Maksimenko 42

– The effluent contents organic matter in solution or colloidal state & numerous living organisms. – BOD > 100 mg/l, this implies the sewage is almost “strong” and able to cause soil pollution. L. V. Maksimenko 43

II. Secondary treatment (aerobic oxidation) (a) Trickling filter method L. V. Maksimenko 44

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Barbotage is the best variant of Aeration Tank L. V. Maksimenko 47

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Aeration station (Ecaterinburg) L. V. Maksimenko 49

Disposal of the disinfected effluent (50 mg Cl. O-/ liter) • 1). Discharge of liquid waste in open water (dilution) • • The conditions are: – – Concentration of suspended solids ≤ 30 mg/l. BOD 5 ≤ 20 mg/l (in some regions ≤ 10 mg/l). Absence of pathogenic organisms. Absence of effect on organoleptic & chemical properties, radioactivity, flora and fauna of the river or the water-storage basin. L. V. Maksimenko 50

2). Disposal on Land • Conditions: – Porous soil – Distance to populated area ≥ 1 km – The effluent only after screening, grit removal, sort period of settlement. – Amount of the served people – 100 -300 people. 2 -1. Filter field 2 -2. Sewage farming (Broad irrigation) 2 -3. Fields of sanitation (separation of the territory into to 2 fields - winter and summers ones) are used for biological decomposition of faeces (a tractor plows the using field) L. V. Maksimenko 51

Construction of the Filter Field L. V. Maksimenko 52

Filter field L. V. Maksimenko 53

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Excreta disposal field L. V. Maksimenko 55

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Part II Hygienic significance of soil / Sanitary evaluation of the soil in populated areas L. V. Maksimenko 57

The concept of soil • Soil is the special is natural-historical body which has arisen on a land surface as a result of cumulative interaction of “factors of soil formation”: climate, rocks, plants, animal, microorganisms and time. • Soil is the open spontaneous selfcontrolled system providing circulation of some substances in the nature L. V. Maksimenko 58

Soil composition • 1. The mineral part consists of spreading parent rocks (90 -98 %) • 2. The organic part consists of a vegetative and animal origin rests (plant residues, animal remains –corpse, faeces) and a humus (10 -2 %). L. V. Maksimenko 59

The humus is the organic substances have been formed due to decomposition of organic residues. The humus consists of humic acids, fulvic acids, humin, ulmin. The ratio of humus and organic matter is called “SANITARY NUMBER”. Sanitary number is not dependent on soil type. The closer the number of health to the value 1, the more humus in the soil and the higher the ability of the soil to clean itself. Functions of humic substances: 1) Accumulation, 2) Transport (due to the formation of water-soluble salts of humic substances with metal cations resulting in the formation of geochemical flows), 3) Regulation (of soil structure, physical and chemical properties of soil p. H, soil nutrient for plants), 4) Protection (through formation of water-insoluble compounds of toxic and radioactive elements), 5) Physiological function L. V. Maksimenko (due to stimulation of germination of 60 seeds)

Physical properties and hygienic value of a soil 1) 2) 3) 4) Soil porosity (the smaller the soil particles, the greater porosity) ): coarsegrained soils – 25 % (sand, gravel), fine-grained soils - 85 % (chernozem), 40 -45 % (alumina). Soil capillarity (Capillary of soil - is the ability of soil to retain moisture). Soil hygroscopicity (Hygroscopicity of the soil - is the ability to pull moisture from the soil air). Fine-grained soil has a large hygroscopicity. Moister capacity (Moister capacity – is the ability of soil to retain moisture). Dark fertile soil is characterized by the highest moisture capacity, podzolic soil - less moisture capacity and sandy soil - even smaller. Soil air (Concentration O 2 = 18 -19 %): • in a pure soil – O 2 + CO 2, • in a polluted soil - O 2 + CO 2 + H 2 + CH 4). • Content of soil air determines ability of the soil to autopurification, to humification (instead of to rotting) of organic substances, structure of microflora on aerobic or anaerobic to breath. Soil moisture – It exists in chemically bound, liquid and gaseous forms (Soil moisture determines the microclimate air layer near the soil surface and the survival of microorganisms ). Soil temperature depends on the degree of coloration of the soil (distinguish between light and dark soil, such as sandy soil and fertile dark soil, respectively). Soil temperature influences on the microclimate inside L. V. Maksimenko 61 buildings and in underground mines.

Activators of infectious diseases • • • 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 - constant inhabitants of a soil (Anthrax, causative agent of gas gangrene, botulism, tetanus, actinomycosis; eggs soil-transmitted helminths). 2 – temporary inhabitant of the soil (causative agents of intestinal infections, typhus-paratyphoid, dysenteric bacteria, Vibrio cholerae, eggs biohelminths). 3 - agents of tuberculosis and tularemia can be permanent and temporary soil inhabitants. Pathogenic viruses, polio, enteric viruses, germs serous meningitis ECHO, Coxsackie may also be present in soil. The survival rate of microorganisms depends on physical properties of the soil, climate and a microclimate, soil air, presence of a biological substratum, presence of antagonistic microorganisms. Bactericidal factors: Low daily both seasonal average air temperature, Sharp fluctuations in average daily air temperature, Low humidity of air, Intense insolation and UV-radiations. L. V. Maksimenko 62

Biogeochemical provinces and biogeochemical endemic diseases • Biogeochemical provinces - an area with extremely low or high content of some chemical elements in the soil. • The reason for changing the chemical composition of soil mineral components may be natural (eg, due to mineral deposits) or anthropogenic (eg, due to soil contamination with industrial emissions) • Biogeochemical endemic diseases are based on biochemical abnormalities in an organisme. The main way of chemical composition of the soil influences on public health is a change in the chemical composition of drinking water, plant and animal foods. Thus, the chemical effects of soil on public health is carried out through the food chain. L. V. Maksimenko 63

• 1. Deficiency: Examples of different BED – Endemic craw (I) (on the podsollike soil, the aggravating factor – lack of copper Cu in the soil ) – Endemic caries of teeth (F) – Keshan illness (endemic cardiomyopathy) (lack of Se) (China, Keshan district) • • • 2. Misbalance: Kashin-Beck illness = Urove disease (lack of calcium in the soil against the backdrop of excess barium and strontium, and inadequate intake of selenium) (The valley of the river Urov in East Siberia, Russia) Endemic Moly gout among the population & molybdenum toxicosis among the animals (surplus Мо at lack of copper) (Armenia, deposits of molybdenum ores) 3. Redundancy: - Se-toxicosis (USA, at consumption in food selenium-concentrating plants) – Poisoning with antimony (Uzbekistan, Sheravshan district, a deposit of antimony) – Endemic fluorosis (F) (intrazonal, often on volcanic emanation soil or in areas of deposits of F-containing minerals, India & China - crippling fluorosis). – Arsenosis or illness " black foot" (is the poisoning with arsenic) (may by also as a result of using of arsenic containing pesticides in rice paddies) - Myanma, Bangladesh, Japan, USA, Mexico, Argentina; skin arsenious cancer is registered in Argentina, Canada, China, Czechia and Slovakia, France, Germany, Israel, Japan, Southern Africa, Switzerland, Great Britain, USA. L. V. Maksimenko 64

Types of Keshan disease. • • A, Acute Keshan disease involves sudden onset with acute heart failure such as cardiogenic shock, severe arrhythmia, and pulmonary edema. ST‐T changes can be noted on electrocardiogram. B, Subacute Keshan disease, the most prevalent type at present, is predominant in children with generalized edema and heart failure of subacute onset. C, The chronic type involves moderate to severe cardiomegaly with a varying degree of heart failure. D, Latent disease involves mild cardiomegaly with normal heart function. Electrocardiographic changes of right bundle branch block (RBBB) and ventricular premature contractions (VPC) may also be present. L. V. Maksimenko 65

Parameters of a sanitary status of soil Epidemiological indexes • Children's educational institutions, hospitals, clinics, recreation areas are socalled objects of raised risk. • • Sanitary-bacteriological indexes: 1). Indirect indexes - coli-index, enterococcus index - characterize intensity of biological loading on the soil. 2). Straight indexes - the maintenance of the pathogens of enteric infections, pathogenic enterobacteria and enteroviruses - characterize epidemic danger of the soil. Sanitary-parasitological indexes: • • – Extensive index = the proportion of positive samples of soil from the number of the investigated (%); – Intensive index = the number of detected pathogenic agents in 1 kg (100 g) of the soil. – The direct impact on public health is caused by eggs of Ascarids, Trichurises, Toxocares, Ancylostome, larve of Strongyloidaes, oncospheres of Taenias, cysts of lamblias, isospores, a balantidium, amoebas, oocyst of cryptosporidium. – Indirect impact on public health is caused by eggs of Trematoda and Diphyllobothrium. • • Sanitary-entomological: preimaginal forms of synanthropic flies. Sanitary-chemical indexes: N. I. Khlebnikov's sanitary number characterizes process of humification and autopurification of the soil. L. V. Maksimenko 66

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Criteria for hygienic evaluation of chemical contamination of soil • Parametrs of soil danger in connection with its chemical contamination: • 1). translocation (ability of a chemical agent` transition into agricultural crops), • 2) water-migration • 3) air-migration • 4) common-sanitary (impact on the soil ability to clean itself = autopurification). L. V. Maksimenko 68

Parameters of danger of chemical substances in a soil Parameter Class of danger I II III Toxicity, LD 50 mg/кg <200 200 -1000 Persistence in soil, months. >12 6 -12 <12 MPC in soil, mg/kg <0. 2 -0. 5 >0. 5 + +/- - ≥ 3 1 -3 <1 strong moderate no Migration Persistence in plants, months Influence on nutritional value of agricultural product L. V. Maksimenko 69

Classes of danger of the chemical substances getting in a soil from emissions, dumps & waste Class of danger Chemical element (substance) I Arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, selenium, zinc, fluorine, benz(а)pyrene II Boron, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, cuprum, stibium, chromium III Barium, vanadium, wolfram, manganese, strontium, acetophenon L. V. Maksimenko 70

• • • Estimation of danger of the polluted soil 1) Unicomponent pollution: Inorganic substance 1. Factor of danger Кi = Сi/MPCi and degree of its exceeding 1 2. Class of danger 3. MPC is the minimal value of an admissible level on 1 from 4 parameters of danger 4. Кmax is the maximal value of an admissible level on 1 from 4 parameters of danger Organic substance 1. Class of danger 2. MPC • 2) Multicomponent pollution: • A total parameter of pollution Zc is the sum of Factors of concentration for each substance Кci = Сi/Cbi, where Ci concentration of the chemical element (substance) found in the soil, Cbi - the background concentration of the same chemical substance in the soil of the region). L. V. Maksimenko 71

List of chemical substances, obligatory at the sanitary control of chemical pollution of a soil of the occupied places (Russia) • • • • Pesticides (residual quantities), Heavy metals, Oil and mineral oil, Phenols flying, Sulphurous compounds, Detergents (anionic and cationic), Cancerogenic substances, Arsenic, Cyanides, Polychlorinated biphenyl's (known as PCB), Radioactive substances, Macro chemical fertilizers, Micro chemical fertilizers. L. V. Maksimenko 72

Influence of complex pollution of soil on health of the population Categoria of polution of soil Zc Changes of populational health in sites of soil pollution Admissible < 16 Minimal frequency of morbidity, functional deviations and deviation in physical development among children Moderately dangerous 16 -32 Enhancement of common morbidity Dangerous 32 -128 Enhancement of common morbidity, increase of amount of frequent sick children, children with chronic diseases, violation of functional condition of cardiovascular system Extraordinary dangerous >128 Enhancement of morbidity of children, violation of reproductive function of woman (enhancement of frequency of toxemia of pregnancy, amount of L. V. Maksimenko premature birth, stillbirth, hypotrophy of newborn) 73

The basic chemical pollution of soil of anthropotechnogenic nature on modern stage • • Heavy metals, Mineral oil, Pesticides. Sources of pollution – emissions of motor transport, power installations, the industrial enterprises, unorganized dumps of toxic waste, agricultural works with application of pesticides. Entering of pesticides into a soil • Danger of pollution of soiles as a risk factor for health of the population is defined by its functional use. L. V. Maksimenko 74

Accumulation of chemical elements in soile in a zone of influence of the industrial enterprises and other sources of pollution (part of document) SOURSES OF SOIL POLUTION Factors of concentration for each substance Кci = Сi/Ci background of region (Degree of excess of background concentration) 2 -10 > 10 Solid common waste of city, used as fertilizer Lead, cadmium, tin, cuprum, silver, stibium, zinc Mercury Sediments of sewerage (system) Lead, cadmium, vanadium, nickel, tin, chromium, cuprum, zinc Mercury, silver Impure water for agricultural watering Lead, zinc Cuprum Cement plant Mercury, strontium, zinc L. V. Maksimenko 75

Improvement of a sanitary status of soils in populated areas. Preventive maintenance of organic pollution 1. Equipment of the occupied places by public toilets, dustbins and urns both their duly clearing and sanitation, 2. Covering of the roads and foot zones by asphalt or concrete and their constant cleaning, 3. The sanitary control of soils` status (first of all in zones of the raised risk), 4. Sanitation 5. Liquidation of dumps 6. Organization of. L. V. Maksimenkosystem. sewer 76

Common prophylactic measures 1. The proof of the endemic nature of disease and revealing of its reason. 2. Official recognition of endemic diseases, development of programs both their state financing and realization on this basis of hygienic and medico-social measures of preventive maintenance 3. The constant control of morbidity of the population (first of all groups of risk) living in provinces 4. Propagation of a healthy way of life in view of factors of harm of the territory. L. V. Maksimenko 77