Russia under Alexander II 1855-1881 Crimean War (1853-56)

Russia under Alexander II 1855-1881

Crimean War (1853-56) Causes Conflict over right to protect Christians in the Holy Land (Russia vs. France vs. Ottomans) British fears of Russian expansion into Ottoman lands Combatants Russia Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, Piedmont-Sardinia Theaters of war Crimean Peninsula Southeastern Europe Black Sea Caucasus region Baltic Sea Treaty of Paris (1855) Black Sea is demilitarized All parties will respect the integrity of the Ottoman Empire

Crimean War (1853-56)

Battle of Sinop

Bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery

The Charge of the Light Brigade Battle of Balaklava (1854)

Significance of the Crimean War Historical significance First tactical use of railroads and telegraph First use of photography and live reporting Improved use of blind artillery Exposed the incompetence of all armies Exposed the inadequacy of battlefield medicine Lessons for Russia Disloyal troops lack devotion to the national cause Incompetent military leadership Technologically backward navy and railroad system Diplomatic Consequences Left Austria diplomatically isolated Led to rivalry between Russia and Austria over the Balkans

Alexander II (1855-81) Succeeded his father Nicholas I at age 36 Finished the Crimean War and negotiated the Treaty of Paris Defeat and humiliation created an opportunity for reform and modernization Reduce the power of the aristocracy Develop Russia’s natural resources Reform the civil service to reduce corruption

Emancipation of the Serfs (1861) Serfs granted full rights of citizens Marriage Property ownership Right to purchase land from landlords Serfs created communities called mirs Mirs distributed land among the peasants Mirs held some land in common Problems Peasants were required to buy the land they held with long-term govt loans Mir ownership of communal lands made land sales difficult Best quality land retained by the aristocracy Most land plots were too small for subsistence Peasants had to pay a high redemption tax to compensate the landlords

Military Reforms Minister of War: Dmitri Milyutin 1874: universal military conscription Creation of an army reserve Establishment of the military district system Building of many strategic railways Improved education of the officer corps End or corporal punishment Soldiers taught how to read Training of women as nurses

Conquests 1860: Acquired Maritime Province from China and established Vladivostok 1860s: completed the subjugation of the Caucasus region 1867: sold Alaska to the United Stated 1870s: conquered Central Asia (Turkestan)

Railroad Liberalization 1855: 600 miles of track 1881: 14,000 miles of track Improved internal and external trade Eased local food shortages and famines Aided in the development of joint-stoke companies and banks Facilitated a large raise in Russia grain, cotton, and ore exports Most political prisoners released from jail Most exiles allowed to return from Siberia Reduced discrimination against Jews and other religious minorities Reduced restrictions on foreign travel Abolished medieval punishments

Administrative Reforms 1864: adoption of the French judicial system Equality of parties Jury trial Professional advocates Unified court system Public defenders for the poor Problems In most villages informal village justice persisted Alexander III circumvented most of the reforms 1864: creation of local governing councils called zemstvos Responsible for schools, roads, public health, prisons, food supply & taxes 1870: creation of elected city councils called duma Problems Zemstva usually dominated by wealthy landowners Zemstva often suppressed individual liberty and innovation

Other Reforms Education reform Relaxed censorship of the press and publishing Universities granted more autonomy Govt financed construction of elementary schools Govt established uniform school curricula Problems most policies quickly reversed by Alexander III Russian Orthodox Church continued to dominate schooling Financial reform 1866: established State Bank to stabilize the ruble and provide low-interest loans Ministry of Finance encouraged expansion of the railroad network through loans 1882: established Peasant Land Bank to provide loans for land purchases Problems Nobles’ Land Bank helped wealthy landowners avoid foreclosure

Nationalist Reforms Granted Finland a degree of autonomy Granted its own parliament and currency Recognized Finnish as an official language Problems Brutally suppressed an uprising in Poland (1863-4) Poland-Lithuania was exempted from liberal land and censorship policies Native languages banned (Russification)

Alexander the Reactionary? Firmly believed in autocracy Firmly believed in divine-right monarchy Firmly believed that Russia was unready for representative government Increasingly concerned about the threat of the anarchist movement Assassination attempt in 1866 caused a turn to conservatism and an expanded role for the Okhrana Appointed the highly reactionary KP Pobedonostsev as Procurator of the Holy Synod and tutor of the heir

Russo-Turkish War (1877) Pan-Slavists encouraged Alexander II to promote Slavic nationalism in the Balkans 1876: Serbs rebelled against the Ottoman Empire 1877: Russia invaded the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire and won decisively Treaty of San Stefano Independence for Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria Russian hegemony in the Balkans Ottoman Empire significantly weakened Congress of Berlin All European nations saw Russian victory as a threat to the balance of power Intention to keep Constantinople safely under Ottoman control Bulgaria was reduced in size and made an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire Macedonia and Eastern Rumelia returned to Ottoman rule Bosnia made a protectorate of Austria-Hungary Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece unsatisfied with gains Russia humiliated and angry after diplomatic failing following military victory Russians outraged at Bismarck’s duplicity Shattered the Three Emperor’s League

U-Turns 1879-80: series of nearly successful assassination attempts Tsar appoints Count Melikov to eradicate the People’s Will terrorist group Public opinion was angered by repressive policies since 1866 1880: Tsarina died and the Alexander II planned to marry his mistress Public opinion would be firmly opposed Alexander II planned to unveil the creation of two legislative commissions composed of elected representatives Loris-Melikov Constitution Signed the decree on March 1, 1881 Mortally wounded by an attack by the People’s Will while departing the Winter Palace

The Reaction Alexander III Immediately cancelled plans for a national Duma Re-instituted censorship Created govt-controlled parallel court system Liberal civil servants fired Expanded powers of the Okhrana Curtailed independence of the zemstvas