Restoration and the Eighteenth Century 1660 -1800 The

Restoration and the Eighteenth Century 1660 -1800 The Augustan Age The Neoclassical Period The Age of Reason The Age of Enlightenment

James I Oliver Cromwell Charles II

n Petition of Rights in 1628 n 1642 - Civil war. Charles I beheaded n After the Civil War, Commonwealth was created— type of government with no king & ruled by Parliament n Oliver Cromwell led the Commonwealth, but did not use democracy— he became a military dictator

New Commonwealth n Life in the Commonwealth was harsh because it was led by Cromwell & the Puritans; Forced strict religious rules on people of England: n It was illegal to go to theaters & sporting events; n “merrymaking” & “amusement” were illegal

Restoration n In 1660 the Anglican Church was restored as the official Church of England King Charles II was restored to power n In 1660, Charles II (“Merry Monarch”) brought back theatres, sporting events, dancing & he got along with Parliament n The monarchy was restored without shedding a drop of blood.

Brought out of Civil War n After ten years and multiple Civil Wars (16411651), Charles II united England, Scotland, and Ireland. n During the Restoration, Parliament strengthened the Church of England—only Anglicans could attend universities, serve in Parliament, be priests in Anglican Church n Parliament created Constitutional Monarchy based on Magna Carta & Petition of Right (Guaranteed rights of people & limited king)

n “The Augustan Age” – like Emperor Augustus of Rome, the Stuart kings brought peace to their country tired from warfare. Tired of revolutionaries and fighting and elevating a monarch to a savior – Oliver Cromwell n “The Neoclassical Period” – emphasis on Latin classics and emulating Latin works to bring around a “new classical” period.

n was born in 1608 into bourgeois class n at a very early age decided to be a great poet n educated at Cambridge, the Protestant University (poems: Pensaroso, L’Allegro, Lycidas, Comus) n received his B. A. in 1629 and his M. A. in 1632 n 1638 traveled in Europe n returned home in 1640, concerned about the political turmoil

Strongly supported the Puritan Reformation n felt it was his duty as a poet to support the Parliamentary party n n Wrote with strong independence and on a variety of topics – Church government – Divorce – Republicanism Was given a position of Latin Secretary to the Council of State n 1652 – blind n 1660 – lost his property n

Pamphlets n • • • During the 1640 s, Milton wrote and published several pamphlets arguing for radical causes: Of Reformation (1641), defending religious liberty Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643) Of Education (1644), against strictly vocational education Areopagitica (1644), against censorship before publication The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649), arguing that Kings could be overthrown

mmm In 1660 he published The Free and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth • In 1660, when monarchy was restored with Charles II (son of Charles I) on the throne, Milton was in danger of being executed for treason; he went into hiding • After a short time, he was assured that he would be safe, and he came out of hiding, but remained in retirement, and began to write his great epic, Paradise Lost • Paradise Lost was first published in 1667; revised version in 1674 •

• Milton planned to write an epic to celebrate a great “British” hero like King Arthur n Instead, he wrote an epic poem that celebrates “Christ” as a hero n This causes problems, because Christ doesn’t act like a typical “human” hero n Many readers—most famously the poet William Blake—have seen Satan as the actual hero n

Milton’s reputation q During 17 th century, he was seen as a dangerous rebel q After 1800, he was associated by most people with Bible-reading q Historians associate Milton with humanism, republican revolution, individualism, the rejection of censorship and religious intolerance q Feminists see him as a misogynist, but one who produces a complex view of gender relations between Adam and Eve

Epic poem n An epic poem is a long narrative poem in an elevated style that presents characters of high position in adventure that prove important to the history of a nation or race.

The Epic Form Epic Poetry is a classic literary form. Homer recorded the first major epic poems—The Iliad and The Odyssey. • Characters are usually VIP (immortal or royal) • The setting is vast, covering great nations and even the world • The action consists of deeds requiring great courage or superhuman strength • contain gods, demons, monsters, or supernatural creatures who intervene in the tale

Paradise Lost, Book I Milton begins with an “invocation” of his “muse” The invocation of the muse is a characteristic feature of classical Greek and Roman epics, like the Iliad, the Odyssey and the Aeneid Milton adapts this tradition for his “Christian” epic by invoking a “muse” that turns out to be the Holy Spirit Lines 1 -49 invoke the muse and describe the topic of the poem Adam and Eve’s disobedience and Satan’s rebellion against God:

The theme n The origin of evil itself. n Milton believed, evil is embedded in man’s nature. n The subject of the poem – ‘of man’s first disobedience’ & the resulting loss of paradise.

Paradise Lost n n n epic poem in 12 books blank verse describes the Christian story of the Fall of Man: the temptation of Adam and Eve by Satan and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. begins in media res (into the middle of things), after Satan and the other rebel angels have been defeated and cast down by God into Hell. The protagonist of this Protestant epic, is the fallen angel, Satan.

Milton presents Satan almost sympathetically, as an ambitious and prideful being who defies his creator, omnipotent God, and wages war on heaven, only to be defeated and cast down. Some critics regard the character of Satan as a Byronic hero. n Later, Lucifer enters the Garden of Eden, where he successfully tempts Eve, wife of Adam, to eat fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of good and evil. He dooms himself. By commiting himself to the destruction of Adam & Eve, he also destroys himself. n

n Milton was a firm believer in the doctrine of felix culpa “happy sin” (happy fall) - the belief that man was greater, potentially, because of the fall and redemption than he had been before. n Milton’s misogyny. The poem is very focused on the fall of man; woman is there, not as a partner, but as a subsidiary cause, created out of one of Adam’s less important bones.

n On April 27, 1667 the blind, impoverished Milton sold the copyright of Paradise Lost for £ 10.

n Later in life, Milton wrote Paradise Regained, charting God's returning to man the possibility of paradise. This sequel has never had a reputation equal to the earlier poem. n In The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, William Blake commented: The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil's party without knowing it.

Intellectual Movement n Voltaire Locke Rousseau Diderot During the 18 th century, certain thinkers and writers, primarily in London and Paris, believed that they were more enlightened than their compatriots and set out to enlighten them.

Enlightenment Thinkers n These thinkers believed that human reason could be used to combat ignorance, superstition, and tyranny and to build a better world.

According to the 18 th- century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the “motto” of the Enlightenment was “Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own intelligence!” (Kant, “What Is Enlightenment? ” 1784) Immanuel Kant

Enlightenment in England n Great Britain developed its own Enlightenment, fostered by thinkers like John Locke and David Hume. – England had deposed and decapitated its king in the 17 th century. Although the monarchy had eventually been restored, this experience created a certain openness toward change.

n n n Humans are naturally reasonable, moral and John Locke good Humans have natural rights: life liberty and property People form governments to protect natural rights Best government was one with limited power If a government violates people’s natural rights, people have the right to overthrow government

The Enlightenment is so devoted to Greco. Roman logic and philosophy it is thus also called the “Neoclassic Period. ” A similar taste appears in their architecture, their plays and drama. .

Arch of Emperor Constantine, built c. 312 -315 CE.

French Arc de Triomph du Carrousel.

the Parthenon of the Acropolis, built c. 447 -438 BCE. Ragensberg Replica, Planned in the 1790 s And built 1830 CE.

The Age of Enlightenment n Origins in the scientific and intellectual revolutions of the seventeenth century. n Change and reason were both possible and desirable for the sake of human liberty. n Provided a major source of ideas that could be used to undermine existing political and social patterns.

PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT n emphasis on reason / logic, scientific discovery and methods n saw the universe as ordered n emphasis on importance of social tradition, established code of behavior/manners, dress, and class hierarchy n renewed interest in classical thought and literature

Major Enlightenment Ideas n Every social, political and economic problem could be solved through the use of reason n Governments are created to secure an orderly society n Separation of powers is the best way to protect human liberties n All men are created “free and equal” n A free market should be allowed to regulate trade

Characteristics of the Neoclassical Age “a reaction against the enthusiasm of the Renaissance. • Human beings as limited and imperfect • Reverence for reason and rules (“Age of Reason”) • Distrust of imagination and innovation • Emphasis on groups rather than the individual

Belief in Deism (the “argument from design, ” God as the Divine Clockmaker) • Emphasis on symmetry, unity, harmony • Emphasis on the didactic and the satiric (satire = “a critical attitude mixed with humor and wit, generally for the purpose of improving humanity”) • Emphasis on the polite, urbane, witty, and intellectual n “One truth is clear: Whatever IS, is RIGHT” (Pope’s An Essay on Man 292) •

How do these tendencies affect the Enlightenment’s literature? Writers drew on “New Classical” style of Roman, Greek, and Latin models In poetry: heroic couplets and “perfect” metrical patterns and a return to classical Greco-Roman epics. Cf. Pope’s The Rape of the Lock. In both poetry and prose, a focus on satire--the use of mockery to point out social stupidities, expose excesses and moral corruption.

LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS emphasis on logic and rational thought, not emotions (Under the influence of the Royal Society and John Dryden, English prose became more precise, exact, and plain; fewer metaphors, flowery language, etc. ); n emphasis on the social/good of the community, not the individual n presence of numerous classical allusions; use of satire; use of elevated diction; formal style that adhered to set rhyme schemes, such as couplets; twodimensional characters or stock types that represent a class or vice n novel in various forms, including picaresque, gothic, and novel of manners n

Changes in Literature n Satire: Authors like Pope and Swift wrote to the privileged class and criticized their lifestyles, using wit as a means of venting over materialism and corruption. They did not share the common attitude of the time – smugness and satisfaction n Journalism: As Pope spoke to the wealthy, journalism spoke to the middle-class. Not only commenting on society, also attempting to reform it. n Poetry: Poetry was not about conveying the soul, it was a public tool. Elegies and odes served a specific function in society. Poetry as a matter of precision and wit and nothing else. n Novels: The development of the true English novel came from this period. Women became a large reading market. Most novels were adventurous with numerous spirited “episodes” – such as in Robinson Crusoe and Tom Jones.

The Age of Satire Alexander Pope and Jonathon Swift (of aristocratic values) both used satire to expose the moral corruption and crass commercialism of the eighteenth -century England. n Artist William Hogarth shared many of their attitudes and ideas and expressed his satire through art. n Daniel Defoe stood for values that we think of as middle class—no interest in polished manners and social poise. n

The Age of Journalism n As the middle class grew, journalists such as Defoe, Joseph Addison, and Richard Steele followed this new profession. n Saw themselves as “reformers of public manners and morals. ”

n n was born into a Catholic family in London 1700 (age 12): lives with retired father on small estate in Windsor Forest. Much reading and writing (perhaps especially because of health difficulties—bone disease left him short in physical stature). Teaches himself Greek and Latin. 1706 -11 (18 -23 yrs old): a man of literary society at London coffeehouses and taverns. Friends with Whig literary figures: Congreve, Steele, Addison, etc.

1709 - series of four short, seasonally themed poems called the Pastorals § love of the classics; Pope's Pastorals are based on the Roman poet Virgil's works § the style of heroic couplets - rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter n 1711 (age 23): Essay on Criticism § should art and poetry be artificially constructed, or do they come from this unpredictable burst of inner natural genius? n

n 1712/14 (age 24/26): Rape of the Lock n 1713 (age 25): begins translation of Homer’s Illiad. (later translates Odyssey) - made him handsomely rich n 1728: Begins epic satire The Dunciad. n 1733 -34 An Essay on Man. n 1735 An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot n 1738 Imitations of Horace.

one of the most quoted authors in the English language üA little learning is a dangerous thing üFools rush in, where angels fear to tread üTo err is human, to forgive divine.

n Pope is famous for earning his living as a writer: “Because he could not, as a Roman Catholic, attend university, vote, or hold public office, he was excluded from the sort of patronage that was bestowed by statesmen on many writers during the reign of Queen Anne”. n Pope’s bookishness as a youth and his gifts as a writer eventually paid off for him. n His corpus includes bestselling translations in couplets of Homer and Vergil; an edition of Shakespeare; and philosophical treatises

Pope’s literary legacy n Aside from being famous for his satire, Pope is most known for his intricate poetic verse: n “Pope was a master of style. From first to last, his verse is notable for its rhythmic variety, despite the apparently rigid metrical unit—the heroic couplet—in which he wrote; for the precision of meaning and the harmony (or expressive disharmony) of his language; and for the union of maximum conciseness with maximum complexity”.

Literary, Social, & Economic Context n Pope “disliked and feared. . . tendencies of his time—the vulgarization of taste and the arts consequent on the rapid growth of the reading public and the development of journalism, magazines, and other popular and cheap publications, which spread scandal, sensationalism, and political partisanship—in short the new commercial spirit of the nation that was corrupting not only the arts but, as Pope saw it, the national life itself” (NA 2494).

Mock epic Rape of the Lock The epic is considered to be the grandest literary form. n a mock-epic or a mock-heroic, is a work that takes on the form of a classic Greek or Roman epic, like Homer's Odyssey, but with a satirical twist. n Satire is a literary form that uses exaggeration and ridicule to expose truths about society. n In The Rape of the Lock, the satire comes from the fact that Pope is using high-and-mighty classical epic form - the tradition of Homer - but he's really telling a story that is incredibly trivial n

Mock epic also… n enables in a very sophisticated way to makefun of things and people by sounding as if you’re flattering them but really mocking at them at the same time. n involves some elements of intertextuality (Pope uses traditions of Odyssey & Paradise Lost) n uses the conventions of the epic: a battle, supernatural elements (creatures), important hero, arming of the hero, etc.

n The Rape of the Lock is divided into cantos n is not incredibly long - it's just 5 cantos and only about 600 lines n is written in heroic couplets n is based on real events

Plot n After the invocation to the muse, a guardian spirit comes to Belinda’s bed in the early morning with a warning dream.

n The main character is Belinda, a beautiful woman called the 'Fairest of the Mortals' (sounds like Homer’s - Helen of Troy) n Belinda gets some supernatural help (the gods are always interfering in Homer's works – Athena). n Belinda's supernatural help comes from someone named Ariel, her guardian sylph - basically an 'air spirit‘ - Ariel and his fellow sylphs have the duty of protecting virgins

Belinda wakes late, and looks forward to an exciting day: “Twas then, Belinda, if report say true, / Thy eyes first opened on a billet-doux [love letter]”.

Belinda prepares for “battle”: She “begins the sacred rites of Pride” (128). “Beauty puts on all its arms” (139)

Headed for Hampton Court (a royal palace about fifteen miles from London), Belinda rides off to her social engagement on a barge down the river Thames (Homer!!) “every eye was fixed on her alone”.

n the Baron - the poem's main antagonist - an admirer of Belinda's who's been plotting to steal her most prized trait: 'two Locks which graceful hung behind / In equal Curls, and well conspir'd to deck / with shining Ringlets the smooth Iv'ry neck. '

'Th' Adventrous Baron the bright Locks admir'd, / He saw, he wish'd, and to the Prize aspir'd: / Resolv'd to win, he meditates the way, / By Force to ravish, or by Fraud betray

Clarissa, a young lady who fancies the Baron for herself - Clarissa's role in the plot is to hand the Baron the scissors 'Just then, Clarissa drew with tempting Grace A two-edg'd Weapon from her shining Case; So Ladies in Romance assist their Knight, Present the Spear, and arm him for the Fight. '

Belinda’s guardian spirits prepare for war and, after an elaborate description of a card game at Hampton Court and some coffee, the rape of the lock occurs.

In order to respond to this dishonorable outrage in the fashion of a true ‘drama queen, ’ Belinda is aided by a gnome spirit, Umbriel, who journeys to the underworld—to the cave of spleen—to find Belinda the ‘weapons’ she needs: a bag of sorrows and a vial of tears.

In Canto 5, Clarissa moralizes about vanity, but then a silly fight breaks out with hairpins as daggers, etc. , and in all the skirmish the lock is lost. But the Muse suggests it shot up like a star, now immortal.

'But trust the Muse -- she saw it upward rise, Tho' mark'd by none but quick Poetic Eyes. ‘ When those fair Suns shall sett, as sett they must, And all those Tresses shall be laid in Dust; This Lock, the Muse shall consecrate to Fame, And mid'st the Stars inscribe Belinda's Name!'