Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Map of Europe 1500
Timeline of Major Events • 1428 -Italy-Florence-Masaccio perfects law of perspective • 1434 -Italy-Florence-Cosimo Medici comes to control oligarchy in Florence • 1447 -Italy-Milan-Francesco Sforza takes control of Milan • 1450 -1485 -England-War of the Roses • 1452 -1519 -Italy-Leonardo da Vinci • 1453 -Byzantine-Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks • 1455 -Germany-Mainz-Guttenberg’s printing press, creates Guttenberg’s Bible • 1463 -France-Italy-Charles VIII invades Italy, brings down Medicis • 1475 -1564 -Italy-Michelangelo-Sistine Chapel
Timeline Continued • 1478 -1502 -Spain-Cardinal urges Ferdinand & Isabella Spanish Inquisition • 1483 -1520 -Raphael-frescoes at Vatican • 1490 -Italy-Oration of Dignity of Man by Mirandola • 1493 -Holy Roman-Maximillian I • 1494 -Italy-Florence-French expelled Medicis from Florence • 1509 -England-Henry VIII succeeded the English thrown • 1511 -England-The Praise of Folly by Erasmus • 1513 -Italy-The Prince by Machiavelli • 1516 -Spain-Charles V becomes Charles I of Spain • 1527 -Italy-Charles V sacks Rome
Important People • Leon Battista Alberti -Florentine architect, • Lorenzo de Medici -head of famous Florentine family caused its financial downfall • Baldassare Castiglione -Italian writer, The Book of the Courtier - the handbook of Euro. Aristocrats • Francesco Sforza - a leading condottieri [mercenary leader], became Duke of Milan in 1447 • Cosimo de Medici -in 1434 controlled Florence oligarchy • Charles VIII - French King in 1494 invaded Naples, brings down Medicis • Michelangelo -painter, sculptor, architect, famous for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel • Ferdinand Isabella -union of Spanish kingdoms of Aragón and Castile in 1469 due to their marriage
People continued • Leonardo da Vinci -great Italian artist, inventor, best example of the “Renaissance man” • Mirandola -wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, one of the most famous writings of the Renaissance • Erasmus -Dutch writer, scholar, and humanist • Niccolo Machiavelli - Exiled from Florence, wrote The Prince (1513) • Charles V -Charles I-Sacks Rome in 1527, brought end to Italian wars and Renaissance • Henry VIII -English King, leaves the Catholic church eventually creating the Church of England • Sandro Botticelli - painted Primavera, well defined figures not common in Early Renaissance art • Donatello -Italian sculptor famous for David • Raphael -Italian artist known for Vatican frescos, and Madonna • Maximillian I -became Holy Roman Emperor in 1493 • Johannes Gutenberg -German printer and pioneer in the use of movable type
Vocabulary • Condottieri -leaders of bands of mercenaries, hired to protect various city-states • Courtier -An attendant at a sovereign's court • Hanseatic League -alliance of Western European merchants and towns joined for security • Papal States -territory of Italy formerly under direct temporal rule of the pope • Heresy -any religious doctrine opposed to the beliefs of a particular church • Taille -A form of direct royal taxation that was levied in France on the lower classes • Black Death -the bubonic plague • Humanism -philosophy that emphasizes the dignity and worth of the individual
Charts The evolving Italian citystates
Women of the Renaissance • The family was very important, women had arranged marriages to strengthen business and family ties • Dowry was payment from women’s family at marriage, they had no control over their own dowry • The women managed the household and had autonomy in daily lives • Apart from a few wealthy noble women the majority of women had no power which was above males • Denied access to Universities and most occupations
Importance • The beginning of humanism which concentrated on the significance of human activity, learning, and bettering one’s self, spawned individualism. This thought was incorporated into all aspects of the social lives of the upper classes. • Educational Advancement-humanism helped set the ground work for “Liberal Studies” education system for elite class • Printing Press-encouraged scholarly research and learning, use of the vernacular • Humanist ideas began the first questionings of the Catholic Church
Ch. 14: The Age of Reformation!
Timeline • 1517: Luther posted 95 Theses • 1519: Zwingli began church reform in Zurich, Switzerland • 1520: Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther • 1522: Luther began church reform in Saxony • 1524 -25: German peasants revolt hoping for Luther’s support, but did not receive it • 1534: Act of Supremacy by Henry VIII declared the king (not the pope) as the head of the English Church
Timeline • 1536 -1539: Henry VIII and Parliament dissolved the English monasteries • 1539: Parliament approved the Six Articles which defined the doctrine of the English Church • 1540: Pope Paul III authorized the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) • 1545 -63: Council of Trent: assembly formed to define Roman Catholic doctrine, initiate reforms, and strengthen the authority of the pope • 1551: The 42 Articles of English Church made it more Protestant because affected by Calvinist ideas
Timeline • 1555: Peace of Augsburg gave each German prince the right to determine the religion (Catholicism or Lutheranism) of his state • 1559: New Act of Supremacy and Uniformity under Elizabeth I repealed Mary’s pro-Catholic laws • 1560: Presbyterianism became official religion of Scotland • 1563: 39 Articles adopted, which defined the teachings of the Anglican Church
• Martin Luther questioned the doctrines of the Catholic Church, specifically indulgences. He refused to recant his 95 theses, was excommunicated, and began Lutheranism. • Frederick of Saxony sheltered Luther and supported him in his reforms of the church. • Ulrich Zwingli broke way from the Catholic Church in Switzerland began the Swiss Reformation • John Calvin was influenced by Luther and continued the Protestant Reformation by introducing Calvinism to Geneva.
• John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland. • King Henry VIII established the state-controlled Anglican Church (Church of England). • Thomas More was Lord Chancellor to Henry VII who opposed the Act of Supremacy and was executed. • Thomas Munzer: German anabaptist that wanted to overthrow religious political and social order • John of Leyden: head of a theocratic government in Germany that endorsed polygamy
• Queen Mary tried to restore Roman Catholicism to England earned the title “Bloody Mary” by persecuting Protestants • Queen Elizabeth sought religious settlement in England through compromise • Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuits and fought for the Catholic Church against the spread of Protestantism. • Erasmus wrote “In Praise of Folly” which criticized the ethics of the Catholic Church
• Lutheranism: Bible is the only valid source for doctrine. Baptism and holy communion are the only sacraments. Celibacy not required for Clergy. • Calvinism: agreed with Luther about the Bible and the sacraments. Believed in predestination • Predestination: Calvinistic belief that God has already determined those who are saved and those who are damned. • Anabaptists: radicals of the Protestant Reformation
• Inquisition: using severe methods like torture to convict many people as heretics • Huguenots: French Calvinists • Puritans: English Calvinists • Presbyterians: Scottish Calvinists • Simony: the sale of church offices • Indulgences: granting forgiveness of sins in exchange for money • Usury: lending money and charging interest • Nepotism: granting positions to relatives
While the Protestant Reformation allowed some women to step out of their usual roles (like Catherine Zell of Germany who preached beside her husband), traditionally most women remained obedient servants to their husbands. The Protestants advocated an importance of family relationships, but according to the “divine plan, ” women were restricted to only the duties of mothering children and pleasing their husbands.
The Catholic Church had such a huge role as the central authority in Europe before the 1500 s. Once Martin Luther stepped out, questioned its authority, and offered a new interpretation of the Christian faith, others followed this trend to break away from the Catholic Church. Protestantism split into different sects, as more ideas and interpretations spread, especially Calvinism. The Peace of Augsburg fueled the Reformation by contributing political support to the movement. While the Counter-Reformation did reform the practices of the Catholic Church, it hardly hindered the Protestant Reformation. As Calvinism began to expand as well, tensions were building and religious warfare began to seem inevitable. The Reformation could not have occurred without the evolution of humanistic ideas during the Renaissance.
Age of Absolutism
Timeline Battle of Lepanto-1571 - Spanish defeated the Turks at Lepanto, it stopped the Turks from ever reaching Europe Peace of Alais-1629 - allowed the Huguenots to keep their religious and civil rights from the Edict of Nantes, but stripped them of their private armies and fortified cities Fronde-1648 -1649 - noble uprising against the French government, wanted to overthrow Mazarin rule for own purposes English Civil War-1642 -1646 - a parliament vs. the king, parliament wins because of a incapable king (Charles I), Constitutional Monarchy became created with the Parliament becoming stronger War of Spanish Succession-1702 -1713 - Charles II left the throne of Spain to Louis XIV’s grandson. IT was thought that Spain and France would unit and that would disturb the balance of power which many countries found threatening, Peaces of Utrecht in 1713 ends the war and France and Spain have to remain separate, England big winner at Utrecht Glorious Revolution-1688 - confirmed William and Mary as monarchs, The royal power to suspend and dispense with law was abolished, and the crown was forbidden to levy taxation or maintain a standing army in peacetime without parliamentary consent.
Timeline cont. Bill of Rights-1689 - affirmed Parliament’s right to make law as and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only with the consent of Parliament
People Cardinal Richelieu-1624 joined the royal council, issued the Peace of Alais, sent out royal officials called intendants to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government (mainly to collect taxes) Louis XVI-(1643 -1715)- key’s to his power was that he was able to restructure the central policy-making machinery of gov’t because it was part of his own court and household, building Versailles, revoked Edict of Nantes, wars and Versailles emptied the treasury Colbert-(1619 -1683)-built roads and canals to improve communications and the transportation of goods, increase wealth by mercantilism, decrease imports by raising tariffs on foreign manufactured goods Frederick the Great-(1640 -1688)- the Great Elector, created an army for Prussia. Brandenburg, raise money by establishing the General War Commissariat to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training Peter the Great-(1689 -1725)- took ideas from the west, went away from the Church, abolished serfdom, taught mannerisms in Russia, Table of Ranks could change a non-noble to a noble
People cont. Suleiman I the Magnificent-(1520 -1566)- Turks reached the peak under his rule, conquest of Constantinople, had superiority over the Mediterranean Charles I- (1625 -1649)- marriage to Maria, a Catholic, aroused suspicions about the king’s own religion, Parliament had many feuds with him over limiting the monarchy, caused a civil war, beheaded
Vocabulary Absolutism- when the king governs all best example is Louis XIV, one king, one law, one faith Taille-an annual direct tax usually levied on land or property Mercantilism- decrease the need for imports and increase exports Constitutional Monarchy- the king and the Parliament decide on laws first seen in England Commonwealth- republic Oligarchy-A form of government in which the supreme power is placed in the hands of a few persons Monopoly- when a company has total control over their competition over that specific product French Classicism- imitation of the artists of antiquity, an emphasis on geometric shapes, and the use of definite lines to clearly delineate objects, and the idealization of nature. Dutch Realism- interested in the realistic portrayal of secular, everyday life
Vocabulary cont. French Neoclassicism- Louis XVI used theater to attract attention to his monarchy, emphasized the clever, polished, and correct over the emotional and imaginative.
Women In Russia, Peter shattered the seclusion of upper-class Russian women and demanded that they remove the traditional veils that covered their faces. Overall in Europe the women were still looked down upon.
The Scientific Revolution
Europe During the Revolution
Timeline of Revolution • • • 1543 - Copernicus’ “On The revolutions” is finally published, displaying the heliocentric theory (the sun is at the center of the universe) 1543 - Versalius publishes On the Fabric of the Human Body, making unprecedented observations of the human body 1609 - Kepler publishes Astronomia Nova, which contains his first two Laws of Planetary Motion 1610 - Galileo publishes his major breakthroughs of the universe, using the newly invented telescope in ”Sidereal Messenger” 1619 - Kepler publishes Harmonia Mundi, which contains his third law describing the form of the orbits and is the last step towards taking the world away from the Aristotelian system 1620 - Bacon publishes “Npvum Organum”, showing how the diverse scientific fields relate to one another 1632 - Galileo publishes “Concerning the Two Chief World Systems”, which compares the Ptolemaic System and the Copernican system 1633 - Galileo is forced to recant his theories due to the Inquisition 1660 - Boyle publishes “New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air”, displaying his gas laws 1662 - The royal Society of London is founded 1687 - Newton publishes “Principia”, which shows the laws of universal gravitation
Important People during the Revolution • • Copernicus- undisputed champion of the Scientific Revolution. He perfected the heliocentric theory, opposing the Ptolemaic System and the geocentric theory. His work, “On the Revolutions”, was not published until after his death for fear of society’s harsh reprisal Kepler- said the universe was shaped on the basis of geometric figures. He created his three laws of planetary motion, confirming the Copernican system. The laws showed that the orbits moved in elliptical patterns, the speed of a planet increases when it is closer to the sun, and the square of a planet’s period revolution is equal to the cube of the average distance from the sun. Galileo- first human to use the telescope to observe the universe. His observations destroyed theory that the make-up of the universe was composed of material similar to that of Earth. Wrote his “Dialogue…” in Italian over Latin so the majority could read it. The work argues for the Copernican system and eventually makes Galileo recant because of the Inquisition Newton- wrote “Principia”, which demonstrated the universal law of gravitation and the fact that the universe was one huge uniform system
Vocabulary • Heliocentric- Theory introduced by Copernicus which disproved the geocentric belief that the Earth was the center of the universe and instead pitted the Sun at the center • Scientific Method- new method of inquiring knowledge set forth by Bacon which was built upon inductive principles • Scientific Society- Facilities which enabled research to be carried out along new experimental lines.
Women and the Revolution • • Still had traditional attitude that the woman’s role should be that of a daughter, wife, and/or mother. Women interested in Science had to go about it through an informal education More opportunities were given to elite women (ex: Margaret Cavendish, aristocrat involved in crucial scientific debates) In Germany, women interested in Science had greater opportunities because of traditional female participation in craft production- 14% of all German astronomers between 1650 -1710 were women.
Women and the Revolution • • • Women working in family observations received training in science Maria Winklemann- German Astronomer, denied position as an assistant astronomer by the Berlin Academy No women invited to join Royal Academies Men still had opinions from Medieval times that women were inherently base, very susceptible to sinning, and needed the controlling of men Men used the new science as an argument to keep women at home and to keep the argument that they were inferior
Summary • At the beginning of the Revolution, society was very much based on man’s ego. The Earth was pitted at the center of the universe and men thought that the world revolved around them and that even the universe was of the same material and form as the Earth. As new discoveries arose, such as the Copernican system, Kepler’s Laws, Newton’s gravitational laws, and Galileo’s astronomical discoveries, the opinion was soon shifted. Men began to see that science could not just be based around their egos and that true observations had to be made over inferring through logic the laws of the universe. Though religion tried to cause friction during this shift, the Revolution eventually won out. Today, Scientific observations are the only valid ways to prove anything, and men look at the universe as a solitary unit which has properties that one needs to actually research before inferring anything.
Chapter 18: The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment Motto: “Dare to know!: Have the courage to use your own intelligence!” — Immanuel Kant Reason behind all things • Seek progress for a better society
Road to Enlightenment · popularization of science · • accounts of diff. cultures Newton’s Principia Fontanelle’s Plurality of Worlds · · • impact of travel literature • legacy of Locke and Newton new skeptism · Peter Bayle (1647 - 1706) - attacked religious attitudes • intellectual inspiration
Philosophes • most not philosophers • most French • affected individuals everywhere • rational criticism- applied • freedom of expression • most did not receive
Montesquieu (1689 -1755) Spirit of Laws (1748) • 3 types of government republics- small monarchy- medium like Britain despotism- large Beliefs • Persian Letters- criticize French institutions • traditional religion • advocates- religious toleration • denounces slavery • reason- liberates humanity
Voltaire (1649 -1778) Real name: François-Marie Arouet • enlightened despotism – proponent of this form of government – correspondence with Catherine and Frederick • advocate of Deism – believed in the ability of man to shape his destiny – God = clock maker Treatise on Toleration (1763) • proposed religious toleration • no problems in England & Holland
Denis Diderot (1713 -1784) Growing pains • son of craftsman • Jesuit education • Dedicated to independence • most versatile of philosophes • University of Paris • father’s wish- lawyer or clergy “Great work of his life” THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
John Locke • Essay Concerning Human Understanding – “tabula rasa”- everyone born blank slate • Social Contract – Second Treatise on Government • Locke’s influence – “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness” in American Constitution
“Science of Man” David Hume (1711 -1776) Scottish philosopher • Treatise on Human Nature • idea: “science of man” Adam Smith (1723 -1790) • Wealth of Nations (1776) • laissez-faire= leave alone, promoting capitalist system • attack mercantilism, promotes capitalism Quesnay and the Physiocrats leader François Quesnay (1694 -1774) land only source of wealth individuals should pursue self-interest
Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743 -1794) • French philosophe • The Progress of the Human Mind • nine stages of history- previous • tenth stage- perfection • terrorized by French revolutionaries
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778) Early Years born in Geneva Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind abandoned • civilization corrupted man studied music and classics • gov’t necessary evil moved to France The Social Contract (1762) (cont. on next slide) agreement of the governed by general will people have right to change the government
Rousseau (continued) Emile (1762) Social Contract (cont. ) education work all responsible to govern themselves 5 yr. -12 yr. - nature taught Emile 12 -16 - abstract learning liberty- follow best for group 17 -19 - encouraged reason Rousseau’s private beliefs education should aid natural instincts women naturally inferior sent children
Women in the Enlightenment • females- naturally inferior according to most philosophes • Diderot and Voltaire- positive views Mary Astell A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1697) • women intellectually equal Some Reflections upon Marriage • reconsiders traditional roles Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 -1797) Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) uses beliefs about man’s role to the monarchy as justification called for equal rights in education and economic and political society
Social Life of the Philosophes Salons ran by socialite women began in the 17 th century elite women’s role in politics Other ways of expression: • Societies: secret and learned • Coffee houses, cafés • public libraries Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin • haven for Diderot’s The Encyclopedia • attracted Montesquieu, Voltaire
Art during the Enlightenment Antoine Watteau Rococo Art (1684 -1721) • emphasized grace The Pilgramage to Cythera • rejected geometry in art portrayal of aristocratic life • very secular Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696 -1770) ceiling of Bishop’s Palace blends with Baroque architecture Balthasar Neumann (1687 -1753) premier architect church at Vierzehnheiligen the Residenz elaborate, ornate and colorful
Music Johann Sebastian Bach Mass in B Minor St. Matthew’s Passion boisterous spirit in his secular music felt music means for worshipping God George Frederick Handel (1685 -1759) stormy career moved to England 40+ operas Messiah • most well known work
Cultural Innovations Novel Samuel Richardson • Pamela - serious tone • wide success Henry Fielding • History of Tom Jones, A Foundling • adventure story Recording of History eliminated need for God in history politics dominated philosophes writings Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon
Religion Under Catholic control in 1700: Spain Portugal Protestant domains: France Scandanavia (Lutheranism) Italy N. Germany (Lutheranism) Poland England (Anglicanism) S. Germany Scotland (Calvinism) Habsburg domains
Religious Tolerance Toleration and Jews Joseph II of Austria most lived in E. Europe Toleration Patent of 1781 restricted most places (except Poland) Catholicism- public Christians- assimilation of Jews Lutherans, Greek Orthodox and Calvinists can worship privately intellectuals- favored acceptance of Jews “Non-Catholics are in future admitted under dispensation to buy houses and real property, or practice as master craftsmen, to take up academic appointments and posts in public service, and are not required to take the oath of any form contrary to their religious tenets. ” -- Toleration Patent (p. 628)
Important Terms • • • social contract- obligation of a ruler to the governed tabula rasa- man born a blank slate shaped by experiences enlightened absolutism- ex: Frederick the Great and Catherine the Greatrulers who ruled for the good of the people though had supreme power laissez-faire - hands off government policy toward economics (Adam Smith) freedom of thought- Immanuel Kant- each person has inalienable right to think freely Deism- religion of Voltaire- belief system with God as a clock maker
Chapter 19 The Eighteenth Century: European States, International Wars, & Social Change
Europe in the 1700 s
Timeline • • • • 1703: Peter the Great establishes St. Petersburg 1711: Charles VI takes Hapsburg throne 1714: end of War of Spanish Succession 1715: Louis XV takes French throne 1733 – 1735: War of Polish Succession 1740: Maria Teresa takes control of Hapsburg lands 1740 – 1748: War of Austrian Succession 1756 – 1763: The Seven Years’ War 1762: Catherine the Great takes Russian throne 1772: 1 st partition of Poland 1774: Louis XVI takes French throne 1788: Louis XVI calls Estates General 1789: Storming of the Bastille, Great Fear, National Assembly 1793: 2 nd partition of Poland, Louis XVI is executed, Reign of Terror 1795: 3 rd partition of Poland
Terms of the 18 th Century • • • Natural rights: inalienable privileges that cannot be withheld from individuals Enlightened absolutism: absolute monarchs should make reforms society needs Domestic system: the practice of using individual households to perform specific tasks in a production process in order to produce goods for merchants cottage system: the domestic system Pugachev’s Rebellion: a serf rebellion in Russia led by Emelian Pugachev from 1773 to 1775, as a result Catherine the Great reorganized the Russian government the Diplomatic Revolution: took place in years after 1748, Frederick the Great allied with the British and Austria, in hopes to regain Silesia, allied with France and the Hapsburgs, and the Russians the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle: ended the War of Austrian Succession in 1748, Prussia kept Silesia, but other conquered territories were returned to their owners. Primogeniture: treating the first son as favorite, came under attack as enlightenment ideas spread Pragmatic Sanction: developed by Charles VI so that other European countries would recognize the authority of his female heir, Maria Theresa
Monarchies of the 18 th Century FRANCE: the Old Regime • King Louis XV: r. 1715 – 1774: his chief minister was Cardinal Fleury • Fleury helped to stabilize French currency and maintain peace • Overall, the King did little to solve major problems in France, with financial difficulties only increasing after the Seven Years’ War • The nobles were upset over privileges and rights they lost as monarchs became more absolute • King Louis XVI: r. 1774 – 1792: he married Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess who spent enormous amounts of money resulting in outrage from the French people • Louis XVI appointed Turgot to be controller general of finances, Turgot abolished guilds and tried to reduce government spending, but he did not succeed in fixing France’s economic problems • Louis XVI dismissed Turgot in 1776 and appointed Neker to his position. Necker increased spending and further worsened the financial situation and the king dismissed him in 1781. • Overall, Louis XVI was an ineffective king whose inability to solve Frances problems set the stage for the French Revolution.
ENGLAND • In the 18 th century power was shared between Parliament and the king • Parliament was dominated by the landed aristocracy • The economy grew as more capital and better transportation became available, requiring more raw materials and world markets. • The Stuart dynasty ended with death of Queen Anne • The crown passed to George I (1714 – 1727), then George II (1727 – 1760), then George III (1760 – 1820) • Robert Walpole was Prime Minister for George I and George II, he had considerable power over running the British government since they had little understanding of its workings • Walpole tried to maintain peace and reduce new taxes • William Pitt the Elder became prime minister in 1757 and worked to acquire new colonies, but he was dismissed by George III and replaced with Lord Bute • George III wanted to strengthen the monarchy, but the people wanted a larger role in their government, so the king was highly criticized.
PRUSSIA • Frederick William I: r. 1713 – 1740: he enforced somewhat strict economic policies and managed the country’s finances very well, increasing its income. He also doubled the size of the Prussian army, with army officers becoming members of the higher social class • Frederick II a. k. a. Frederick the Great: r. 1740 – 1786: made Prussia one of the most powerful countries in Europe through taking over territory such as the Hapsburg province of Silesia. He also tried reforms to modernize his government. He helped economic development through industry, using tariffs and loans. Frederick II also had a fairly tolerant religious policy, respecting rights of both Lutherans and Catholics.
RUSSIA • Peter the Great: he died in 1725, and failed to appoint an heir, so the army and the nobility took over control of the country for a few years until Peter III took the throne in 1762, but he only ruled for a few months because he was incompetent, so his wife – Catherine the Great – took over. • Catherine the Great: r. 1762 – 1796: she was a strong ruler who liked the reform ideas of the Enlightenment, but she did little to reform Russia. She continued the economic program set in place by Peter the Great, reducing internal barriers to trade. Russia’s export of goods increased. She wanted to increase the power of the throne, but rewarded the nobility that supported her with land some power. After Pugachev’s serf revolt in 1773, she reorganized government, giving control to local nobility in provinces.
AUSTRIA • Charles VI: r. 1711 – 1740: He was Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of Austria. He gained the Spanish Netherlands with a peace treaty in 1713. He had no male heir, so he created the Pragmatic Sanction so that other European rulers would, upon his death, recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa, as his heir (but they didn’t, causing the War of Austrian Succession) • Maria Theresa: r. 1740 – 1780: After the War of Austrian Succession, her husband received the title of Holy Roman Emperor, but he left Maria Theresa in control. She wanted to consolidate her control, so she took most of the local nobility’s power away. She imposed taxes on both the nobility and the clergy, and abolished the state’s control over the Catholic church. • Joseph II: r. 1765 – 1780: He did not begin to rule Austria until 1780, when Maria died. He wanted to be an enlightened despot, so he instituted reforms to modernize his government and increase throne’s power over the Hapsburg lands and over the church and nobility.
Wars of the 18 th Century The War of Austrian Succession • 1740 to 1748 • Charles VI (1711 – 1740) had no male heir, so he worked to establish the Pragmatic Sanction with other European countries so that they would recognize Maria Theresa, his daughter, as the Austrian ruler upon his death • When Charles VI died, other European rulers ignored the Pragmatic Sanction, led by Frederick II of Prussia who invaded Austria • The French also entered into war with Austria, so Austria made an alliance with France’s traditional enemy, Great Britain • The war quickly became quite widespread, countries took turns seizing each others’ colonies in the Far East and in America • In 1748 the peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and returned seized territories to their rightful owners – except for Prussia, who refused to give back territory it took from Austria.
The Seven Years’ War : the war in Europe • 1756 to 1763 • This war took place in Europe and in the colonies • The War in Europe: it began when Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Saxony (Austria’s ally), Austria was also allied with France, Russia, so Frederick was facing a powerful opponent and was defeated in several battles. Prussia, however, received financial assistance from England, who hoped to strengthen Prussia in order to weaken France and hinder France’s efforts in the colonial wars that were taking place • In 1762 the alliance against Prussia fell apart because Russia left the war (Peter III, the new ruler, liked Frederick), so in 1763 Prussia validated its possession of Silesia with the Treaty of Hubertusburg
The Seven Years’ War : the war in colonies • • a. k. a. the French & Indian War France and England went to war in over their colonies France allied with Spain, and England lost some territory at first Finally, William Pitt the Elder came to power as prime minister in England from 1757 to 1761 he helped to better fund the war, and substantially improved the British navy so that they could provide reinforcements and supplies for the colonies, so the British began to win some battles • In 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended the war, with the British getting French Canada and land between the Appalachian Mts. And the Mississippi River. The British also gained dominance in India, and took Florida from Spain since they were allied with France. • In the end, the British won over France.
Social Changes in the 18 th Century • There was rapid population growth • In the 2 nd half of the century attitudes towards children changed (as a result of enlightenment ideas) so that they were no longer viewed as miniature adults, instead of being dressed in adult-like clothing, children’s clothing shops emerged with more comfortable and relaxed clothing, and primogeniture was criticized. • New ways of finance emerged as the establishment of banks allowed for paper currency to become widespread an expansion of credit to allow for growth of industry. • The domestic system emerged in the countryside, a merchant could have individual households perform specific tasks in a production process to provide him with goods to sell. • Colonial empires allowed for an increase in global trade and an expansion of the country’s economy because they had people to whom they could sell their goods, thus supporting their mercantilist systems. • Society was mostly rural, with free peasants and serfs making up 85% of the population of Europe • The Nobility made up about 3% of the population of Europe, and for the most part they remained a fairly powerful group, both militarily and politically. • Poverty remained a major problem for Europe
Chapter 20 A Revolution in Politics: The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon
Timeline of the French Revolution • 1774 - Louis XVI crowned as French King • 1788 - France bankrupt, which causes tensions and troubles and leads to revolution. • 5/5/1789 - The Estates-General meets for the first time since 1614. • 5/5/1789 - The Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly with the Tennis Court Oath. • 6/17/1789 - Louis XVI recognizes the National Assembly and allows per capita vote. • 7/14/1789 - Storming of the Bastille
Timeline (continued) • 8/14/1789 - Feudalism ended in France • 8/1789 - Declaration of Rights of Man adopted • 10/5/1789 - Parisian women march on Versailles because of a bread shortage, Louis VXI and Marie Antoinette are relocated to Paris. • 1790 - Civil Constitution of the Clergy makes Catholicism state religion of France. • 1791 - Louis XVI adopts a Constitution • 1791 - The Legislative Assembly meets • 9/211792 - The National Convention meets and installs a republic. They tire Louis XVI for treason and convict him.
Timeline (continued) • 1/21/1793 - Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette guillotined in Paris. • 1793 - Committee of Public Safety formed by National Convention, Reign of Terror. Robespierre and Jacobins take control of France and kill royalist sympathizers. • 7/27/1974 - Robespierre arrested and guillotined. • 1795 - The Directory established to govern France. • 1795 -1799 - Napoleon gains power. • 1799 - Napoleon declares himself Consul of France
Timeline (continued) • 1802 - Napoleon declares himself Consul for life, and then Dictator • 1803 - Napoleon sells Louisiana territory to the U. S. in order to gain money for his nation and release himself from any conflict with the U. S. and its allies. • 1809 -1810 - Continental System- closing off European ports from Britain. • 4/11/1814 - Napoleon abdicates the throne and is exiled to Elba. • 5/10/1814 - Treaty of Paris.
Timeline (continued) • 9/1814 - Congress of Vienna begins, to remake Europe after the downfall of Napoleon • 3/1/1815 - Napoleon begins his march on Paris. • 3/20/1815 - Napoleon enters Paris and begins his “ 100 days. ” • 6/1815 - Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon defeated. • 5/5/1821 - Napoleon dies
Terms • Estates-General-consisted of representatives from three Estates, French parliamentary body, called by Louis XVI for the first time since 1614 and began the revolution. • First Estate- the clergy • Second Estate- the nobles, concerned about the loss of their power in the church, military, and government. • Third Estate- bourgeoisie and peasantry, 70 -80% of the population, concerned that the other two estates were exempt from taxes, wanted and enlightened despot,
Terms • Declaration of the Rights of Man- Adopted in August, 1789 by the National Assembly, this document states how men are born free and equal and governments must protect the rights. • Tennis Court Oath- The Third Estate was locked out of the Estates-General meeting place, so they met and swore to continue to meet until there was a new constitution for France. • Storming of the Bastille- Louis XVI wanted to use force against the Estates-General, but urban uprisings prevented him. A mob stormed the Bastille in order to find arms.
Terms • Bourgeoisie- Middle-class workers, merchants, industrialists, and bankers. • Old Regime- The Absolute Monarchy in France • Napoleonic Code-Napoleon’s codification of laws that forms the basis of laws in many modern day countries. • Jacobins- Radicals during the revolution • “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”- The slogan of the Revolution.
People • Louis XVI- Absolute monarch, unwilling to change to enlightened despot • Enlightenment thinkers- inspired bourgeoisie and American Revolutionaries with their ideas about government. • Robespierre- Leader of Jacobins, lead the Reign of Terror • Napoleon- Self-declared Consul of France, military strategist, took over Continental Europe, exiled to Elba, returned for 100 days, defeated at Waterloo finally
Women • During the revolution, women of Paris staged a march on Versailles and forced Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to return to Paris. • Declaration of Rights of Women in 1791 voiced woman’s desire for equality among men in France.
Europe in the Age of Napoleon
Importance The French Revolution was an attempt to put the ideas of the philosophes into action. It was a major turning point in European political history because it helped promote more democratic ideals and helped begin the modern history of Europe. During the revolution, the weakened nation was an easy target for Napoleon to take over, and he did so successfully and began his campaign conquering lands of Europe. Eventually, the majority of Continental Europe was under control of the dictator until he was finally defeated and exiled, and defeated again at Waterloo after his return.
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