Rebuilding Japan After World War II
Reasons for Rebuilding Japan
Reasons for US Rebuilding Japan • Stop the spread of communism throughout Asia and promote democracy in the region by reforming Japan’s monarchy into a constitutional monarchy (democracy with an emperor with limited power). • Improve Japan’s economy in order to trade with Japan and sell US products to Japan’s market.
Reasons for US Rebuilding Japan • Stop the spread of communism throughout Asia • Promote democracy in the region by reforming Japan’s monarchy into a constitutional monarchy • Improve Japan’s economy in order to trade with Japan and sell US products to Japan’s market
Today Japan has one of the most powerful industrialized economies in the world. Like the U. S. , Japan encourages a market economy which motivates people to develop new ideas and expand businesses. 1941 Japan declares war on the U. S. by bombing the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. America then declares war on Japan and enters WWII. 2009 1945 EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE REBUILDING OF JAPAN AFTER WORLD WAR II U. S. financial support, along with the Japanese values of hard work lead to a period of great economic growth for Japan. 1955 The U. S. drops atomic bombs on Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending WWII. 1945 Japan is granted membership into the United Nations five years after a seven year U. S. occupation. 1952 Political, economic, and social reforms were introduced, such as a freely elected Japanese Diet (legislature) and universal adult suffrage (voting rights). Japan establishes a constitutional monarchy. 1947 After WWII, Japan was placed under international control of the Allies through the Supreme Commander, General Douglas Mac. Arthur.
Potsdam Declaration
By 1945 Japan was almost beaten. The Japanese navy and airforce were completely destroyed. The soldiers were low on ammunition, civilians were going hungry, but Japan refused to surrender. The leaders of Japan had told their army and civilians that it was dishonourable to surrender. It was better to die fighting than be taken prisoner. As American forces got closer to Japan the Japanese changed their tactics. Japanese pilots flew their planes straight into American warships in suicide attacks. These kamikaze of attacks by Japanese planes were almost impossible to stop.
The Potsdam Declaration • July 26, 1945: Japan is given an ultimatum, known as the Potsdam declaration: 1. Japan must surrender immediately or face “prompt and utter destruction”. 2. Implies that Emperor Hirohito would be removed from the throne. 3. No mention of Soviet entry in the war or the atomic bomb.
Excerpt from the Potsdam Declaration: • “We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces, and to provide proper and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action. The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction. “
Japan’s Response • Japanese premier wanted to accept, could not convince military leaders • Hint from Tokyo that government might surrender, in return that Japan could keep their emperor. • US insisted on unconditional surrender, ie. No emperor, because believed these hints were coming from people who did not have power to follow through. (May have been right) • Officially - Japan refuses to surrender and announces that it will “ignore” the Declaration.
Japan’s Response to the Potsdam Declaration Japan’s response was ambiguous. Before Japan could agree to any surrender, the top military officials had to figure out a way to satisfy many different groups inside Japanese official Suzuki used the word mokusatsu which had a few different English translations. The US and the US newspapers interpreted the word to mean “reject” when in fact it could have meant something different. The apparent rejection of the Declaration definitely sped up the process of using the atomic bombs.
Japanese View of Unconditional Surrender Emperor Hirohito was totally against unconditional surrender. Americans viewed Hirohito as a symbol of military aggression Unconditional surrender destruction of “divine” monarchy.
Consider this… "As long as America and England insist on unconditional surrender our country has no alternative but to see it through in an all-out effort for the sake of survival and the honor of the homeland. " - Japanese prime minister Shigenori Togo in turning down surrender demand, July 11, 1945.
Plans to Invade Japan and Decision to Drop Atom Bombs
Uses for the Bomb Against Germany or Japan General Groves believed it could end World War II. $2 billion used to build the bomb. Not using it would be a waste. 'If this weapon fizzles, each of you can look forward to a lifetime of testifying before congressional investigating committees. " Gen. Groves to his staff, December 24, 1944
Plan to Invade Japan • US planned to invade Japan with eleven Army and Marine divisions (650, 000 troops) • Casualty estimates for the operation were as high as 1, 400, 000 • Truman decided to use the atomic bomb to avoid such losses Operation Cornet, the plan to take Tokyo
Many people in Britain and America had little sympathy for the Japanese because of the way they had treated British and American prisoners. Thousands were starved, or worked to death in camps by the Japanese. There was very little respect for the Japanese in Britain and America. The Americans had been dropping incendiary bombs on the wooden cities of Japan for some time. More people died in the night of the Tokyo “fire” raid than Hiroshima, but hundreds of planes and thousands of tons of bombs were needed. One bomb in one plane seemed a better use of resources. Many people were worried about the effect of using atom bombs. Even though one had been tested in a desert in the USA nobody knew how big the blast would be or how far the radiation would reach. Would it destroy all of Japan? Would its radiation stay in Japan? Would the explosion set off an atomic chain reaction around the world? Should such a horrific weapon be used at all? But, America only had two atom bombs in August 1945. What if Japan still refused to surrender after both bombs were dropped?
Alternatives to dropping the bomb Drop the bomb or: • • • Massive invasion of Japan, costing approximately 1 million Allied casualties Naval blockade to starve Japan and continued fire-bombing Demo of new weapon on deserted or scarcely populated island to pressure Japan to surrender Weaken Allied demands for an unconditional surrender Simply stop fighting
Saving Lives by Using the Bomb Non-combatants were dying throughout Asia at the rate of 200, 000 per month. The complete naval blockade of Japan would have resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths due to malnutrition, dehydration, and famine. The atomic bomb saved thousands of American soldier’s lives
Invading Japan? If America did invade Japan, many Americans would have died. Secretary of State James Byrnes claimed 500, 000. Total combat deaths after four years of war – 292, 000.
Arguments for using the atom bomb on believed 1. The American government. Japan there would be over a million American casualties if they invaded Japan. 4. The “fire” raid on Tokyo killed more Japanese than the atom bomb, but the raid had to be made by hundreds of US planes and thousands of tons of bombs 7. The Japanese believed anyone who surrendered was dishonourable. Japanese soldiers refused to surrender to the Americans in battle even though they had lost. 8. America could show the rest of the world how powerful and advanced it was by using atomic weapons againsttreated prisoners cruelly. 9. The Japanese Japan Many British and Americans had no sympathy for the Japanese when they heard how their prisoners were starved, worked to death or executed. 10. As the Americans got closer to Japan they faced suicide and kamikaze attacks by the Japanese army and airforce. 2. Some American scientists and generals wanted to know what the bomb could do to a live target even though it had already been tested in an empty desert Arguments against using the atom bomb on Japan 3. The Americans had only made two atom bombs by August 1945. They were very expensive and hard to make. What if the Japanese still hadn’t surrendered after both had been used. 5. Nobody knew how long the effects of radioactive fall out would last, or if radiation would cause genetic mutation in humans, animals and plants for years afterwards. 6. Some people were concerned about the huge number of civilian deaths resulting from the atom bomb particularly as it looked like the Japanese were beaten. 11. The new weapon could make Russia feel threatened, and create a post war world filled with tension and fear as a result of atomic weapons. 12. Nuclear technology was new. Nobody knew if the explosion would cause an atomic chain reaction around the world.
Technological reasons 12. Nuclear technology was new. Nobody knew if the explosion would cause an atomic chain reaction around the world. 5. Nobody knew how long the effects of categories radioactive fall out would last, or if radiation would cause genetic mutation in humans, animals and plants for years afterwards. 2. Some American scientists and generals wanted to know what the bomb could do to a live target even though it had already been tested in an empty desert Humanitarian reasons 6. Some people were concerned about the huge number of civilian deaths resulting from the atom bomb particularly as it looked like the Japanese were beaten. 7. The Japanese believed anyone who surrendered was dishonourable. Japanese soldiers refused to surrender to the Americans in battle even though they had lost. 1. The American government believed there would be over a million American casualties if they invaded Japan. Diplomatic reasons 9. The Japanese treated prisoners cruelly. Many British and Americans had no sympathy for the Japanese when they heard how their prisoners were starved, worked to death or executed. 8. America could show the rest of the world how powerful and advanced it was by using atomic weapons against Japan 11. The new weapon could make Russia feel threatened, and create a post war world filled with tension and fear as a result of atomic weapons. Military reasons 10. As the Americans got closer to Japan they faced suicide and kamikaze attacks by the Japanese army and airforce. 4. The “fire” raid on Tokyo killed more Japanese than the atom bomb, but the raid had to be made by hundreds of US planes and thousands of tons of bombs 3. The Americans had only made two atom bombs by August 1945. They were very expensive and hard to make. What if the Japanese still hadn’t surrendered after both had been used.
• Pros: A-Bomb Debate – Demonstration could be a dud • Japanese might shoot down test plane • Might put POW’s in testing area - Only way to make Japan surrender - Need to justify the cost of building the bomb and man hours spent working. – It would end the war and save countless U. S. military lives – Give U. S. more power in rebuilding Europe • Mounting tensions w/Russia • Cons: – Stage a demonstration – Would kill thousands of Japanese civilians – Would be immoral to drop the bomb w/o prior warning
Truman’s Motivations. Many historians believe that a main reason for the use of the bomb was retaliation for the surprise and brutal attack on Pearl Harbor. After the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Truman said “This is the greatest thing in history. ” and “Nobody is more disturbed over the use of atomic bombs than I am but I was greatly disturbed over the unwarranted attack by the Japanese on Pearl Harbor and their murder of our prisoners of war. Thousands of POW”S were mistreated
Truman’s True Beliefs “We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark. ” “I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. ” “He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one and we will issue a warning statement asking the Japs to surrender and save lives. ”
Formal Warning to Japan On August 10, 1945 thousands of leaflets were dropped over the city of Nagasaki Sample Leaflet The leaflets called for a petition to the Emperor of Japan to stop the war and agree to thirteen consequences of an honorable surrender.
The Americans feared that if they tried to invade Japan millions of American soldiers would be killed in suicidal attacks by Japanese soldiers. They had seen even civilians commit suicide when they invaded the Japanese island of Saipan. So America had to make Japan surrender without an invasion by American troops. On the 6 th of August 1945 a B 29 bomber plane called the “Enola Gay” dropped one bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Thousands of civilians were killed or horribly burned. More people died of atomic radiation afterwards. This was the world’s first nuclear weapon. When another atom bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki a few days later, Japan finally surrendered.
The Atomic Bomb • The first Atomic bomb to be used in war… ‘little boy’. • This bomb was shipped from the US a mere 4 hours after the ‘Trinity’ A-bomb test in the US. • The actual radioactive material inside was the size of an orange.
Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki – Forced Japan to surrender and the end of the war. August 6, 1945 _______ August 9, 1945 Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer headed the new U. S. laboratory built to design an atomic bomb. Oppenheimer recommended a remote site in New Mexico for the new facility, where project scientists, many of them world-famous, could work together in complete secrecy. The Los Alamos Laboratory was opened in April 1943.
Hiroshima – August 6, 1945 • Chosen because of its large size, its being "an important army depot" and the potential that the bomb would cause greater destruction because the city was surrounded by hills • Approximately 140, 000 deaths by the end of 1945 – About ½ on the day of the bombing – Others died from injury or illness due to radiation • The majority dead were civilians
Hiroshima and Nagasaki • Hiroshima Aug 6, 1945 – 90, 000 killed • On Aug 8, the USSR declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria the next day • Nagasaki Aug 9, 1945 – 35, 000 killed • Okinawa had been much more costly than Hiroshima and Nagasaki Captain Paul Tibbets piloted the plane that dropped the bomb on Hiroshima
Hiroshima - 90, 000 to 100, 000 persons were killed immediately - 145, 000 persons perish from the bombing by the end of 1945. Nagasaki Leveled Area: 6. 7 million square meters Damaged Houses: 18, 409 Casualties Killed------73, 884 Injured-----74, 909 Total------148, 793 (Large numbers of people died in the following years from the effects of radioactive poisoning. )
Nagasaki – August 9, 1945 • Nagasaki was one of the largest sea ports in southern Japan and was of great wartime importance because of its wide-ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. • Bombings prior to the Atomic Bomb caused concern and many civilians left for rural areas • An area about 2. 3 miles by 1. 9 miles was destroyed • Approximately 80, 000 deaths by the end of 1945
Nuclear Strikes Aug 6, 1945. Uranium bomb “Little Boy” dropped on Hiroshima, killing 140, 000 Aug 9, 1945. Plutonium bomb “Fat Man” dropped on Nagasaki, killing 74, 000
Within a few seconds the thousandscloud…thein the streets andme “I could see below the mushroom of people thing reminded the gardens in the center ofof tar than wereother description I can give. It more of a boiling pot the town any scorched by a wave of searing heat. black and boiling underneath with a steam haze on the ground, was Many were killed instantly, others lay writhing on top of it…We screaming theagony fromwe flew in, and pain of their burns. Everything had seen in city when the intolerable there was nothing to see when standing upright in wasway of the blast, boiling, black-looking mass. ” we came back. It the covered by this walls, houses, factories, and other buildings, was annihilated. ~ W. Tibbets, Jr. (pilot, Enola 1945. ~ Col. Paul. Japanese journalist, August 6, Gay) 8: 15 a. m. Hiroshima, Japan August 6, 1945
Hiroshima Before the Bomb
Hiroshima After the Bomb
Hiroshima, vicinity of ground zero
• Nagasaki before and after the atomic bomb
www. smh. com. au
Effects of the Bombs
Keloids
Atomic bomb survivor. 1945 This patient's skin is burned in a pattern corresponding to the dark portions of a kimono worn at the time of the explosion. U. S. National Archives & Records Administration, Washington D. C. Years after WWII, President Harry S. Truman was asked if he had difficulty making the decision to use this new weapon. He responded without hesitation, “Hell no. I made it just like that. ” And he snapped his fingers. T. Loessin; Akins High School
World War II and Its Aftermath: Section 4 Color Transparency 178: Hiroshima, by Toshimitsu Imai 4 of 6
In an August 1945 poll, 85% of Americans felt it was OK to use the atomic bomb. When the bombs dropped and news began to circulate that [the invasion] would not, after all, take place, that we would not be obliged to run up the beaches near Tokyo assault-firing while being mortared and shelled, for all the fake manliness of our facades we cried with relief and joy. We were going to live. We were going to grow up to adulthood after all. ~ Paul Fussell, age 21 in 1945
The Cost • • 2, 000 Japanese Soldiers dead 300, 000 Allied Soldiers dead 600, 000 - 1, 000 Japanese civilians dead 11, 000 American civilians dead 60, 000 Korean civilians dead Mass devastation of Japanese infrastructure Indigenous people of north and western Pacific islands devastated by disease, cultural contamination, collateral damage, and atrocities. • The list continues…
Surrender and Occupation of Japan
Emperor Hirohito The atomic bomb convinced the Emperor to break the deadlock of Japan’s generals and accept the Potsdam Declaration He gave three reasons, "a collapse of domestic morale” and two military concerns: “inadequate preparation to resist the invasion and the vast destructiveness of the atomic bomb and the air attacks” (Frank, 345). The atomic bomb was given as the main reason for the surrender of Japan
Surrender Japan surrenders Sept 2, 1945 aboard the USS Missouri
Japan Surrenders • In 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities- Hiroshima and Nagasaki. • The Japanese finally admitted defeat and surrendered. • Japanese farms and industries had been destroyed, the government was in a shambles, and the Japanese people no longer saw their emperor as a god-like hero.
After WWII • The Japanese surrendered in September of 1945. – Their country had been reduced to rubble. – Industries and farms were destroyed. – The government was in shambles and the people were demoralized. – The Emperor had been exposed as an ordinary mortal rather than the god the Japanese people had believed him to be.
Consequences and Reparations • The Japanese signed all peace treaties ending the war and pledged to pay war reparations (damages) to the countries they had harmed during WWII. • American troops were allowed to remain in Japan. • The Japanese were not permitted to rebuild their army in any major way.
U. S. OCCUPATION OF JAPAN 1945 After WWII, Japan was placed under international control of the Allies through the Supreme Commander, General Douglas Mac. Arthur. Gen. Douglas Mac. Arthur accepts the Unconditional Surrender from the Empire of Japan
U. S. Occupation of Japan • The U. S. was put in charge of helping to rebuild Japan. • Japan was now controlled by a U. S. army occupation led by General Douglas Mac. Arthur. • Mac. Arthur’s job was to rebuild Japan in a way that would guarantee that it would not pose a military threat to other countries in the future.
Mac. Arthur General Douglas Mac. Arthur, the American commander of the occupied forces, was given the job of putting Japan back on its feet. § He was expected to create a Japan that would guarantee it would not pose a military threat to other countries in the future. § Mac. Arthur wanted Japan to have a democratic government, but he also appreciated the important place the Japanese emperor occupied in the Japanese culture. §
US Occupies Japan “Japanese soldier guarding road to Yokohama standing at attention with his back to a conquering American soldier who is driving by in a jeep as he displays an attitude of great respect according to Japanese culture. ” Life Magazine
NAVY TROOPS STATIONED IN JAPAN
The Occupation • 1945 - 1952 • Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP) - General Douglas Mac. Arthur • Two main tasks: – demilitarization – democratization
Condition of Japan Immediately After Surrender
Note two effects of Allied bombing raids on Japan. Destroyed numerous cities, shattered the economy, caused deaths of two million people. In the background are the remains of a Roman Catholic cathedral on a hill in Nagasaki, Japan following the atomic blast of Aug. 9, 1945.
Japan’s Post-War Infrastructure • Much of Japan’s infrastructure had been completely destroyed by battle and atomic bombs. • infrastructure- the basic structures or features of a city or nation; transportation, communication, sewage, water, and electric systems are all a part of infrastructure.
Reforms Made to Japan
JAPANESE CHANGES REFORMS POLITICAL New Constitution ECONOMIC Improve Infrastructure Constitutional Monarchy SOCIAL English as 2 nd language Japan adopts US culture Market Economy Emperor Stripped of Power Invest in Human and Capital Resources Women’s Suffrage
Rebuilding and Improving Infrastructure
Postwar Political Developments Infrastructure • Increased paved roads • High speed ‘bullet train’ began service between Osaka and Tokyo in 1964 • New trunk line, ‘shinkansen’ 74
Land Reform and Labor Reorganization
Rebuilding Japan • Labor reorgnaization • Unionization – democratization • Dec. 1945 Trade Union Law right to organize bargain and strike. • 1946 – I million to 4. 5 million members. • Land Reform 2/3 of arable land – tenants rents, • 1946 Land reform act – 5 million acres – redistributed in 2 -5 years
Education Reform
Postwar Social Developments Education (Post SCAP) • Hierarchical system remained: middle school, high school, college or university • Increasing number of youths advanced to high school • Educated-based hierarchy 78
Reforms Relating to Gender and Family
Postwar Political Developments Women’s Status (SCAP period) • • Recruiting women to work as prostitutes in ‘Recreation and Amusement Centers Extended civil and political rights to women First post-war elections: 39 women were elected to the Diet, 10% of the seats But the dominant position of males in the family and in society at large was not overturned by constitutional reform 80
Postwar Social Developments Women’s Status (Post SCAP period) • Shifted from working in textile companies to electronic companies • Living in company housing and enjoying very constraining benefits of paternalistic management policies 81
Postwar Social Developments Gender Inequality • Male graduates: entered managerial positions • Female graduates: faced tremendous barriers • Schooling for female: courses in home economics, health—learned the skills of good wives and mothers 82
Postwar Social Developments Family Pattern • Nuclear families & extended families: co-existed • • Single family homes of middle-classes • Extended family pattern changed • Arranged marriage to ‘love marriage’ 83
Cultural Reforms 84
Postwar Social Developments Cultural and leisure activities/Living Style • Mass media continued to play a key role • Provided powerful sense of belongings • TV broadcasting-NHK • Change in social consciousness 85
Demilitarization and War Criminal Reforms
Demilitarization • Purged almost all wartime officers and politicians • Disbanded almost all militaristic associations and parties • Prosecuted almost all war criminals – The issue of Yasukuni Shrine • Dismantled almost all war industries
War Criminals • Yasukuni Shrine was built in Meiji 2 (1869) • Japan’s Pacific War criminals have been worshiped in it since 1978 • Strong protests from other Asian countries
The "Peace Clause" • Article 9 in the 1947 constitution: • “the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes • “land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained”
Article 9 Controversy PP. 155 -56 1) Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. 2) In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized. • Renunciation of war • No possession of military forces • Denial of the state’s right of belligerency
Self-Defense Forces Established in 1954 Interpretation of LDP Government (until 2009) --Invasion is prohibited but self-defense is permitted. --SDF is a minimal power and not military forces Alternative interpretations of Art. 9 --All war and military forces are prohibited, including for self-defense. --All war and military forces are prohibited, but Japan has self-defense rights. --War and military forces are permitted for the purpose of self-defense.
Political Reforms
Government Choices Mac. Arthur decided to Japan would be a constitutional monarchy. § A constitutional monarchy is one where… § He wrote a constitution for the country, still referred to as The Mac. Arthur Constitution, that created a two –house parliament called a Diet. §
JAPANESE REFORMS (Changes) 1947 Political, economic, and social reforms were introduced, such as a freely elected Japanese Diet (legislature) and universal adult suffrage (voting rights). Japan establishes a constitutional monarchy. Douglas Mac. Arthur and Emperor Hirohito. www. wikipedia. org
Japan’s New Constitution • The constitution created a two-house parliament called The Diet. • Everyone over the age of 20 could vote for members of the Diet. • The constitution also included a Bill of Rights and guaranteed basic freedoms. • The emperor remained as a symbol of the country, but was stripped of his power.
Japan’s New Constitution • The constitution stated that Japan could never again declare war on another country. • Japan is allowed to fight only if it is attacked first. • Japan could not use its land, sea, or air forces to settle international disputes. • Today, the Japanese government is one of the strongest in the world.
Japan’s Constitution § In Japan’s new constitution The emperor remained as a symbol of the country. § The people were granted universal suffrage § Everyone over the age of 20 was allowed to vote for member of the Diet § It also contained a Bill of Rights and guaranteed basic freedoms. § One clause in this constitution prevents Japan from declaring war. They are allowed to fight ONLY if they are attacked first. §
JAPANESE CONSTITUTION www. japanfocus. org
Transforming Japan into a Democracy http: //www. ndl. go. jp/constitution/e/shiryo/05/142_001 l. html
JAPANESE LEGISLATURE DIET web-japan. org
FREE ELECTIONS AND WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE http: //video. google. com/videoplay? docid=-4152602444592357615
US ENDS OCCUPATION OF JAPAN 1952 US ends their occupation of Japan in 1952. Japan is granted membership into the United Nations in 1957.
Economic Reforms
Postwar Recovery 1945 -49 • The Japanese economy collapsed due to input shortage. Inflation surged. Living standards plummeted. • The US occupied Japan and forced Army General democratization and demilitarization Douglas Mac. Arthur, head (but later partly reversed). of GHQ • Subsidies and US aid supported the war-torn economy. • The priority production system, based on economic planning, contributed to output recovery (1947 -48). • Inflation was ended by Dodge Line stabilization (1949).
Rebuilding Japan • Zaibatsu – cartels – Military-economic – Froze accounts, 83 companies were broken up – Heavy industry (ship building, trucks) – Anti Monopoly law passed – 1957, 1200 companies reviewed, only 9 affected
Land Reform, 1946 -50 Redistribution of land ownership to actual cultivators 1945 plan was rejected by GHQ (5 ha max; only 11% of land redistributed; “absentee landlord” definition ambiguous) 1946 plan adopted and accepted by GHQ --All land above 1 ha (4 ha: Hokkaido) must be sold --Land price is nominally fixed under high inflation --Land buyers can pay in 30 -year installments --For remaining tenants, rents are frozen and monitored Implementation (mainly 1947 -48) --Involving 6 million families (2 million were losers) --Owned land increased from 54% (1941) to 91% (1955) --Labor-intensive: 415, 000 officials and volunteers mobilized --Absentee landlord holdings: 80 -90% transferred --Other landlord holdings: 70 -80% transferred Mac. Arthur: “most successful reform” politically and for equity.
Reasons for “success” --Forced reform under US occupation (“landlords are evil”) --Accurate data and village network for easy identification of ownership and cultivators --Preparation by reform-minded officials (before WW 2) --Availability of large number of educated staff (unemployment pressure) Problem—economic inefficiency --Average farm remained small: 1. 09 ha (1941) 0. 99 ha (1955) --More incentive to produce? Estimated productivity did not rise. --Study shows no difference in rice farmers’ land productivity or labor productivity (1939 -41 data) : Owned land (3, 780 kg/ha, 20 kg/laborday) Tenanted land (3, 687 kg/ha, 19. 6 kg/laborday)
Rural Life Quality Improvement M. Mizuno and H. Sato, eds, Development in Rural Society: Rethinking Rural Development, IDE-JETRO, 2008, in Japanese. • In 1948, GHQ ordered the Ministry of Agriculture to initiate nationwide “Life Improvement & Dissemination Movement. ” • Many local governments (Yamaguchi, Kagoshima, etc) also launched similar programs with enthusiasm. • Official directives + grass-root village activities organized by life improvement dissemination staff (=village housewives). • Daily life improvement: cooking, nutrition, meals, clothing, bedding, cleaning, washing, child raising, public morals, weddings/funerals, superstition, feudal habits, etc. • Staff training in Tokyo and major cities; universities and research institutions providing information and techniques. • Similarly, “New Life Improvement”, “Life without Mosquitoes and Flies Movement, ” etc. up to the 1950 s and 1960 s.
Two Artificial Supports 竹馬経済 Price Gap Subsidies (Subsidies & US Aid) US Aid and Korean War Boom Fukkin Loan Balance, Mar. 1949
US REBUILDS JAPAN’S ECONOMY 1955 U. S. financial support, along with the Japanese values of hard work lead to a period of great economic growth for Japan.
Economic Reforms in Postwar Japan Edited by Yutaka Kosai & Juro Teranishi, 1993 • Radical reforms were possible because of --US occupation --Wartime control that reduced the power & incentives of zaibatsu and landlords --General distrust in the market mechanism --Foreign aid and Korean War boom (macro supports) • Labor, land zaibatsu reforms for changing power relation, distribution, equity (not for efficiency) • Three-step deregulation—(i) reforms under control, 1945 -50; (ii) integration, 1950 s-mid 70 s; (iii) financial deregulation & SOE privatization, 1980 s Markets need time to grow, or political resistance?
The Tokyo Labor College was one of the many institutions created after the war in order to promote more equitable economic development than had existed before www. japanfocus. org
THE COMPACT CAR JAPANESE IMPORTS TO THE U. S. IN THE 1970 s
Growth of Japan’s Economy
Korean War (1950 - 1953) • Economic turning point for Japan: – war supplies to Korea – industrial resurgence – foreign currency • 1945 - 1950 growth rate: 9. 4% • 1950 - 1955 growth rate: 10. 9% • 1952 Japan’s GDP matched prewar high
Korean War (1950 -3) • Economic turning point for Japan: – war supplies to Korea – industrial resurgence – foreign currency – economic reconstruction • 1945 - 1950 growth rate: 9. 4% • 1950 - 1955 growth rate: 10. 9% • 1952: Japan’s GDP matched prewar high
High Growth of 1955 -62 • Large investment in heavy industry • Imports of energy and raw materials • Government’s economic goals: – achieve economic self-sufficiency – achieve full employment – improve export competitiveness – keep domestic demand high
High Growth of 1963 -1973 • Government’s “doubling income” plan – Large-scale infrastructure construction • Labor-intensive to capital-intensive – Technological improvement and facility modernization under government protection • Aggressive export strategy – Businesses compete with foreign counterparts under government protection
High Growth of 1963 -73 • Government’s plan to “double the national income in ten years” • scheduled 9% annual growth rate • large-scale infrastructure construction – Shinkansen (bullet train) – Olympic Games – port, road, and rails – human infrastructure
High Growth of 1963 -73 • labor-intensive in decline – agricultural subsidies – textile bankruptcies and “excess capacity” – coal industry in serious decline • capital-intensive on the rise – large firms had 10 - and 20 -fold growth • electronics and automobile
Government response • government responded to some sectors’ decline with reorganization and subsidization • technological improvement and facility modernization under government protection – Ministry of International Trade and Industry • constant and critical role in developing the computer industry
High Growth of 1963 -73 • Aggressive export strategy – businesses compete with foreign counterparts under government protection • domestic market sealed off from competition • Strict limitations on governmt expenditures • 1965 Japanese exports exceeded imports for the first time in two decades
Government policies • Macroeconomic success through internationally competitive firms – reduce the reliance on agriculture and small industry – capital-intensive industries – technically sophisticated products – improve national economic infrastructure – improve human infrastructure
Protection of domestic market • U. S. products and capital dominated world markets to an unprecedented extent in 1950 s and 1960 s • Japan remained virtually unpenetrated by – foreign firms – foreign products – or foreign capital • Bretton Woods system (1949 - 1971)
JAPAN REPRESENTED A NEW MARKET FOR AMERICAN GOODS AND SERVICES THIS HELPED IMPROVE BOTH COUNTRY’S ECONOMIES
Japan’s Economic Growth
Political & economic institutions • Japan compared with other industrialized democracies – economic institutions dramatically different – economic performance was superior – longest dominance by one political party – far greater egalitarianism in political economy – foreign and security policy tied to that of US
More shocks in 1990 s • Large and rising government deficit and public debt (now more than 200% of GDP) • Aging population (median age now at 45) • Banking crises and non-performing loans • Asian financial crisis (1997 -1998) • “Hollowing out” of industry • Natural disasters and terrorist attacks
JAPAN IS A MODEL NATION 2009 Today, Japan has one of the most powerful industrialized economies in the world. Like the U. S. , Japan encourages a market economy which motivates people to develop new ideas and expand businesses.
Today Japan has one of the most powerful industrialized economies in the world. Like the U. S. , Japan encourages a market economy which motivates people to develop new ideas and expand businesses. 1941 Japan declares war on the U. S. by bombing the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. America then declares war on Japan and enters WWII. 2009 1945 EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE REBUILDING OF JAPAN AFTER WORLD WAR II U. S. financial support, along with the Japanese values of hard work lead to a period of great economic growth for Japan. 1955 The U. S. drops atomic bombs on Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending WWII. 1945 Japan is granted membership into the United Nations five years after a seven year U. S. occupation. 1952 Political, economic, and social reforms were introduced, such as a freely elected Japanese Diet (legislature) and universal adult suffrage (voting rights). Japan establishes a constitutional monarchy. 1947 After WWII, Japan was placed under international control of the Allies through the Supreme Commander, General Douglas Mac. Arthur.
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