Question one The issues raised by media ownership

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Question one: The issues raised by media ownership in contemporary media practice. Learning outcome: You will know how the ownership of the production, distribution and exhibition companies affects the type of films that are being made.

At the end of this revision notes you need to be able to answer: 1. How does the ownership in the film industry effect how films are produced? 2. How does the ownership in the film industry effect the distribution of film? 2. How does the ownership in the film industry effect the exhibition of films?

1. How does the ownership in the film industry effect how films are produced? • In your exam I would use Warp Films and Working Title as your main case study as Warp is a British independent studio and Working Title owned by a conglomerate. If you are having trouble remembering both just choice one. As Warp is small and independent you might also have to mention Film 4 as it has co-produced films with them. I would also mention Warp X which makes smaller budget films, as they focus on making on digital films. As Warp being smaller budgets, and Working Title being medium budgets you could also contrast them with 20 th Century Fox which is one of the Major studios, so it is competently different to Warp as it is owned by a larger media conglomerate news Corporation. Although it is similar to Working Title, Working title have their film budget capped. This means these companies have different film budgets, focus on different genres and to some extent have different audiences. • 3

Media ownership • 1. question asks: The issues raised by media ownership in contemporary media practice. • What it means: • How does the ownership of the production, distribution and exhibition companies affects the type of films that are made. 4

Ownership • When we are talking about ownership we are talking about a monopoly where a few powerful institutions control pretty much everything you see here and read. Although there are other independent companies, these global media giants referred to as parent companies control the production companies and the means to distribute. • One of these parent company is called News Corporations which owns Fox filmed entertainment, which owns 20 th Century Fox, and the distributor Fox searchlight. News Corps also own other subsidiary companies like the Sun and the Times. 5

There are two types of ways a company can be structured in its ownership. One is referred to as vertical ownership-where the companies in that portfolio supple and depend on each other. Horizontal: Where companies are owned by the same parent company but do not rely on each other. What do you think is the benefit of vertical ownership for a media company? If they own both the production company-distributor and the means to exhibit i. e. News Corps own Fox production company a distributor and also Sky which most of their films are broadcast, so they are paying themselves money and in charge of the whole process cutting out the middle man. That’s why News Corps refers to themselves as vertically integrated media company. 6

Vertically Ownership Different parts of the organisation are involved in the same process Hollywood studio Distribution company Cinema 7

Horizontal Integration Companies do not Parent company supply or depend NEWS CORPS on each other in this model. Subsidiary company MYSPACE Subsidiary company THE SUN Subsidiary company 20 th CENTURY FOX 8

Film production and ownership 9

What is Production • Production: Is the creation of the film, however it also means the decisions and processes that go into making a film. There are different types of companies involved in the production process: Both major studios and also production companies • • A production company is the company that is responsible for making of a film and also maybe responsible for raising finance for that film, but this is not always the case. A production company maybe a small company, which sells its idea to a major studio or may co-produce a film. This is often the case because films are so expensive to make that. • Major studios can be involved in both the production and distribution process. Watch video following video clip

Production companies • The production company may be directly responsible for fundraising for the production or may accomplish this through a parent company, partner. • Production companies are often either owned or under contract with a media conglomerate, i. e. 20 th Century Fox is owned one of the 6 major film studios in Hollywood and is a subsidiary of Fox Entertainment which is a owned by News Corporation. Fox Searchlight is also owned by News Corps, and is a major distributor. These companies are usually self financing as they are owned by larger conglomerate. • In contrast there also independent film studios which are not part of the big 6 and are not a subsidiary. British films are often independent and are made by small production studios which do not have the resources to distribute and market their work. To secure distribution in cinemas in Britain and abroad, they have to convince distribution companies - of which the biggest are all controlled by US studios - that their films are worth showing. • But even when they succeed and the films make money, a lot of the profit goes to the distributors, with no guarantee that it will be reinvested in British film. • Media Conglomerate: is a media institution that owns large numbers of companies in various mass media such as television, radio, publishing, movies etc. 11

Two types of film companies • Film production companies can be classed into two categories; Major film studios and Independants. • Major film studios own both production companies that make the films and also the distribution companies that either distribute their own films and also distribute independent production companies films. • Independent production companies produce their own films, but do not have the money to distribute their own films. They often find it difficult to raise money to produce the films and will have to seek to involve the majors early on in production. 12

Major studios 13

Major studios • There are 6 major studios in the world that they are a subsidiary company of a handful of dominant media companies which own most of media in the world from TV, Film and even music. The same parent companies who own the film studios also own the music industry • News Corporation-owns 20 th Century Fox, The Sun, Myspace • Time Warner: Warner Brothers, IPC magazines • Disney: Walt Disney Motion pictures, Disney Channel, Pixar • Bertelsmann: Channel 5 • Viacom-owns Paramount Pictures, Nickolodian, MTV • Sony-Sony Pictures-Columbia Pictures • Vivendi-Universal

Music Industry The same parent companies own films and music industry • Major labels since 2009 (Big Four) 1. Sony Music Entertainment parent company sony who also owns Sony Pictures EMI Group Warner Music Group Parent company Warner Brother who also own Warner Brother Pictures Universal Music Group-Parent Company Vivendi and General Electric 2. 3. 4. 5. Consider that Film the Boat that Rocked is produced by Working Title which is a British production company, but is co owned by Universal Studios. Not only does this mean it has a big company behind it to finance more expensive films but also their distributing power. Guess which record label produced the soundtrack? Mercury Records and I bet you can guess who owns them? Universal, so this is how synergy works by promoting your own products which also means more profit. 6. Link-Boat That Rocked is made by Working Title which is co owned by Universal, Universal also Own Mercury Records which made the soundtrack. 15

The difference between an independent company and a major studio ? s Independent films are different from film studios because they do not have as much money to both product, distribute and market films this means they often have to work with other companies to produce their films. Some institutions need to join with other institutions which distribute films. Independent and small studies often have to work with other studios so they can produce films examples would be Warp films who work with other parts such as Film 4 on This is England, and also when they created Four Lions which was co-produced along with Film 4, Wild Bunch and Optimum Releasing, Optimum releasing also distributor the film. Co-produced is where they work with another company to produce a film, and they raise and finance the film together. • Copy this link to view the video: http: //www. videojug. com/interview/pre-production 16

How does ownership effect the production of a film? • The first stage of production is getting financial backing. • Independent companies like Warp Films and particularly other smaller British companies, which are not linked to an American conglomerate as a subsidiary company are used to have to rely on money from the UK film Council and the National Lottery which funded many British films like the King’s Speech. • The UK film council has recently been closed by the coalition government, and the BFI (British Film Institute) has taken over this role with the responsibility of film policy, and also distributing national lottery money to British film makers, which has increased from 27 million to 43 million from 2014. • The BFI have a film fund which distributes money to British Film makers • Other avenues for British film makers include if they are lucky a private investor or through pre-sales i. e. selling shares before a film is made, or through sales of television rights • Self funding or donations (see Warp Films and the Kickstart Campaign) 17

BFI what they do • The BFI have a film fund which supports emerging film makers (production) • The BFI also have a Print and Advertising fund (distribution and marketing) which helps to widen and support marketing of specialised films • Export fund (Exhibition) The BFI has an film export fund which help to enhance opportunities of British films which have been selected to appear at international film festival.

• Major studios can make big budget films because they are part of a bigger conclomorate and have more money to make the big blockbusters. This means that their films will focus on blockbusters, special effects and big marketing campaigns. Avatar for instance cost as much in marketing as it did in product. ion Further, advertisers, and tie in deals with companies like Mcdonalds, and Coca Cola will be more likely to want to be involved in big budget films because they have a wider audience and are shown at more exhibition houses. • This is because independent films are often low budget and focus particularly in Britain on genre based films as they do not have the funds for CGI and 3 D and are shot in digital because it is cheaper than 35 mm film. • Film Finance They also do not have the money to act as distributor which means they have to rely on either co-funding or using film festivals to promote their films. Major studios can get a lot of private investment because they have a proven track record. 19

Production and funding • The first stage of production is getting financial backing. • Independent companies like Warp Films and particularly other smaller British companies, which are not linked to an American conglomerate as a subsidiary company are used to have to rely on money from the UK film Council and the National Lottery which funded many British films like the King’s Speech. • The UK film council has recently been closed by the coalition government, and the BFI (British Film Institute) has taken over this role with the responsibility of film policy, and also distributing national lottery money to British film makers, which has increased from 27 million to 43 million from 2014. • The BFI have a film fund which distributes money to British Film makers • Other avenues for British film makers include if they are lucky a private investor or through pre-sales i. e. selling shares before a film is made, or through sales of television rights • Self funding or donations (see Warp Films and the Kickstart Campaign)

2. How does the ownership in the film industry effect the distribution of film? • As we have seen so far the bigger companies also own distributors this means it is easy for 22

Distribution • Film distribution is everything that happens in between the making of the film and exhibiting it. A film distributor is a company or individual responsible for releasing films to the public either at the cinema or for home viewing (DVD, Video-On-Demand, Download, Television programs through broadcast syndication etc. ). • Distribution involves all the deals done to get it to the cinema. • Promotion-what goes in to promoting a film, this includes above and below the line advertising • Above the line: is all the promotion which includes costs of trailers, posters, billboard, website, and other tie in deals with companies like Mcdonalds and Coca Cola which are mututally beneficial • Below the line: This includes where stars of the movies do interviews with magazine and also includes reviews of the films. 23

distribution • By contrast, distribution, the third part of the film supply chain, is often referred to as 'the invisible art', a process known only to those within the industry, barely written about and almost imperceptible to everyone else. • Yet arguably, distribution is the most important part of the film industry, where completed films are brought to life and connected with an audience. • So what is involved in this invisible process? Distribution is about releasing and sustaining films in the market place. In the practice of Hollywood and other forms of industrial cinema, the phases of production, distribution and exhibition operate most effectively when 'vertically integrated', where three stages are seen as part of the same larger process, under the control of one company. In the UK, distribution is very much focused on marketing and sustaining a global product in local markets. • In the independent film sector, vertical integration does not operate so commonly. Producers tend not to have long-term economic links with distributors, who likewise have no formal connections with exhibitors. Here, as the pig-in-the-middle, distribution is necessarily a collaborative process, requiring the materials and rights of the producer and the cooperation of the exhibitor to promote and show the film in the best way possible. In this sector, distribution can be divided into three stages - licensing, marketing and logistics. 24

Distribution • Around the world most of the world’s distributors are owned by one of the big companies who control the industry. This means they are in charge of promoting their own films and also the films of smaller studios like Warp. These means the power of a films success lies in the hands of a few companies, and the smaller studios, particularly in Britain have to rely on working with one of the big institutions. 25

Distribution • The first stage of distribution is the acquisition of rights to a film. There are three stages that a distributor might become involved with a film • Pre-production: distributor might invest in the early stage and invest in the production of a film, and have some say over the film. • Production: Distributor might buy the rights to a film when it has already been made. • Third: If the studio is already part of a large conglomerate like News Corps they will use their own distributor i. e. Twentieth Century Fox. Most of the Major big 6 studios own both production companies and distribution companies, but due to the law cannot own cinemas. This joint ownership of both owning both production studios and distribution companies means these companies generally dominate the box office. • Who is your films production company and distributor? Who has invested in it?

Distribution Five major distributors dominate the UK film industry including United International Pictures, Warner Brothers, Buena vista, Twenthieth Century Fox and Sony. Most of these distributors are linked to Hollywood Production companies who make the films. They also deal with exhibitors who are no longer owned as used to be the case owned by the same Hollywood companies. These distributors for reasons of profit and bigger audiences priorities Hollywood films, and blockbusters are usually blanket release. This means smaller British films are never always shown all over Britain because they are competing against these big films which are treated more like an event. 27

A HOLLYWOD EXAMPLE OF DISTRIBUTION LOVE ACTUALLY How many different distributors would you expect to be involved with this film? There are 21 in total if you include both cinema and home video distributors. 14 of these companies are owned by Universal (or part owned as UIP is joint owned with Paramount) – a great example of vertical integration! Universal Pictures (2003) (USA) (theatrical) Argentina Video Home (2004) (Argentina) (DVD) Argentina Video Home (2004) (Argentina) (VHS) Filmes Lusomundo (2003) (Portugal) (theatrical) Mars Distribution (2003) (France) (theatrical) RTL Entertainment (2006) (Netherlands) (TV) (first national airing) (RTL 5) Studio Canal (2003) (France) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Argentina) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Switzerland) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Germany) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Spain) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (UK) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Italy) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Netherlands) (theatrical) United International Pictures (UIP) (2003) (Singapore) (theatrical) United International Pictures (2004) (Japan) (theatrical) Universal Home Video (2004) (Brazil) (DVD) Universal Home Video (2004) (Brazil) (VHS) Universal Pictures (Spain) (2004) (Spain) (DVD) Universal Pictures Benelux (2004) (Netherlands) (DVD) (VHS) Universal Pictures Canada (2004) (Canada) (DVD) (as Universal Studios Canada)

Film distribution how it works • Someone has an idea for a movie. • They create an outline and use it to promote interest in the idea. • A studio or independent investor decides to purchase rights to the film. • People are brought together to make the film (screenwriter, producer, director, cast, crew). • The film is completed and sent to the studio. • The studio makes a licensing agreement with a distribution company. • The distribution company determines how many copies (prints) of the film to make. • The distribution company shows the movie (screening) to prospective buyers representing theaters. • The buyers negotiate with the distribution company on which movies they wish to lease and the terms of the lease agreement. • The prints are sent to theaters a few days before the opening day. • The theater shows the movie for a specified number of weeks (engagement). • You buy a ticket and watch the movie. 29

Distributors • Distributors do a deal with an exhibitor i. e cinema chain for how long the film should be shown i. e. a licence agreement for how long the film should be shown. Distributors then get a profit from ticket sales. Distributors are also responsible for marketing the films so that people go to the cinema to watch the film, which benefits both the cinema and the distributor. 30

Film licensing • licensing is the process by which a distributor acquires the legal right to exploit a film. In distribution, licensing itself can take place on two levels. • International distribution ensures that films find their way to the 90+ market 'territories' around the world. The major US studios generally have their own distribution offices in all the major territories. By contrast, independent producers have to sell their films to different distributors in each territory. Independent production companies are usually small concerns, sometimes set up for one film and often lacking the necessary knowledge or contacts of each of the territories around the world. Instead of doing this themselves, they might choose to hire a specialist sales agent, whose function is to understand the value of a film in many different markets. The sales agent will then set up stall at the film markets that take place throughout the year. • Then there is 'local' distribution, which involves the distributor acquiring the licence to release and exploit the film in a particular country. The distributor will usually pay the producer a minimum guarantee for the licence. This fee will vary depending on the status and perceived commercial potential of the film, and on the range of rights that the distributor chooses to exploit. A distributor will usually be offered theatrical rights, for showing the film in cinemas; video rights, for video and DVD exploitation; and TV rights, if the distributor is able to sell the film to a broadcaster. • In addition to paying a fee to secure the film, the licence will stipulate that the distributor will also pay royalties to the producer, taken from the profits that the film generates. A local distributor will conventionally share profits equally with the producer for theatrical leg, pay back higher royalties for broadcast rights, and lower for video/DVD. • Once the licence has been agreed, it is then the distributor's job to launch the film. In the UK, feature films are released initially theatrically (in cinemas). A theatrical opening is seen as the most effective way to create interest in a new film. The big screen is still the optimum setting for a film for both audiences and the filmmakers. • Some months following theatrical release, a film will be packaged and released on DVD and VHS video, then on various forms of pay television and eventually, two years after opening in cinemas, on free-to-air television. The value of the film built up by its theatrical release reaps dividends throughout its release cycle, influencing the audiences and commercial value it subsequently commands. At every stage, the successful distributor must have an in-depth knowledge of the marketplace - which cinemas, video outlets and broadcasters can best draw an audience for its films - and of the variable marketing costs involved in releasing a film in that territory. The trick is to weigh up the two factors, to invest as much as is needed in promoting the film to draw out the maximum returns. 31

• Film distribution problems for smaller companies The problems for smaller studios like Warp is not only do they have to rely on a distributor to promote their film, but also because ever film shown in the cinema is printed on a separate film reel, smaller companies cannot afford to have as many prints. Major studios can afford this outlay, which means often cinema views have to wait until their local cinema has this type of film available. • So at the level of distribution smaller studios cannot afford to compete with bigger films, and have to look at other ways to distribute their films. They also cannot afford big above the line promotion i. e teaser trailers, which are usually reserved for the blockbusters films. Smaller studios if they get a big star to agree to a pay cut to star in their film 0 i. e Catherine Zeta-Jones saved an independent British film Death Defying Acts from being scrapped by agreeing to take a pay cut to star in it. The star, who can command fees of up to $12. 5 million, agreed to a lower salary after it was revealed the project was struggling. This means independants could then use below the line advertise to promote for film. 32

Positioning • Distributors have to position films to reach their target audience. If released in a slow period, or when their is intense competition their film maybe a failure. • Films rarely break even through cinema releases alone, but they rely on the success of the cinema to increase DVD and merchandising. • 15 -24 year olds the most frequent cinema going age, so lots of films are targeted at them i. e. Robert Paterson films. • Distributors love films aimed at this target audience but also films that can also bring wider audiences in too. Avatar, Alice Wonderland etc. • A publicity campaign that misidentifies an audience will jeopardise the audience. Consider the last time you went to the cinema if it was to see Avatar notice how may other 3 d films were advertised. You were their target audience, remember the glasses you had and if you kept them you would get a discount? This is clever marketing to get you back again, is it a coincidence that all the 3 d films came out at the same time, no it was to keep you coming back for more. . Most blockbusters are released certain times of year to coincide with school holidays.

Marketing • The marketing of a film release revolves around two key questions: 'When? ' and 'How? ' • In the UK, new films are released theatrically on Fridays. The schedule forthcoming releases is coordinated and published by the Film Distributors Association. A distributor will assess this schedule to identify a Friday release date where there are only a few films scheduled for release. Finding a 'light' week will ensure that there will be both screen space and adequate review column inches in the press allocated to any potential release. A further consideration for scheduling a release is the seasonality of the film. For example, it is widely assumed within the industry that specialised films have the greatest potential to reach audiences during the academic year. Finally, the distributor will try to position the film distinctively and avoid a release date occupied by other films with similar traits (story, subject, country of origin). In recent years in the UK, these two aspects of release planning have become increasingly difficult, as the release schedule has regularly featured over 10 new releases in a week. • After setting a release date, the distributor works towards theatrical release, investing in the materials and the marketing campaign to support it. • The costs of theatrical distribution, met by local distributors, are often referred to as 'P&A', or Prints and Advertising. P&A are the nuts and bolts of marketing and distributing films into cinemas, the tools used by the distributor to create a public for its film. P&A also represent the bulk of the distributor's investment, after paying the initial fee for rights, and can range from less than £ 1, 000 to over £ 1 million for the release of a film in the UK. 34

Advertising and marketing material • The key elements of Prints and Advertising (P&A) that a distributor must consider at this stage are: • The quantity and production of release prints and trailers: Specialised films will often be released with fewer than 10 prints into key independent cinemas, with these prints subsequently 'toured' over a 6 -month period to all parts of the UK. On the other hand, commercial mainstream films will often open on over 200 prints, simultaneously screening in all major UK towns and cities. • Press materials, clips reels, images, press previews, screener tapes: For the majority of releases, favourable press response is a key factor in developing the profile and desirability of a film. Distributors consider both the quality and breadth of coverage, and this is often inscribed into the nature and scale of a press campaign. • The design and printing of posters and other promotional artwork: The cinema poster - in the UK this means the standard 30" x 40" 'quad' format - is still the cornerstone of theatrical release campaigns. Numerous recent examples indicate that the poster design is highly effective in 'packaging' the key attributes of a film for potential audiences. Distributors will also consider other poster campaigns, ranging from Underground advertising to billboards. 35

Advertising campaign locations, ad size and frequency: • Advertising in magazines, national and local newspapers works in tandem with press editorial coverage to raise awareness of a release. Press advertising campaign for specialised films will judiciously select publications and spaces close to relevant editorial. For mainstream films, scale and high visibility is the key. The cost of print advertising in the UK is comparatively high, and is seen as making distribution in the UK a riskier business than in most other countries. In order to extend the reach of advertising and develop more effective communication with audiences at low cost, distributors are looking increasingly to 'viral marketing' - different forms of electronic word-ofmouth via the internet, email and mobile phones. • Press campaign / contracting a PR agency: Many independent distributors in particular do not have press departments, and will consequently hire a press agency to run a pre-release campaign. This is especially the case if the distributor brings over key talent for press interviews to support the release. • Arranging visit by talent from the film: The use of talent - usually the director and/or lead actors - wins significant editorial coverage to support a release. The volume of coverage can far outweigh the cost of talent visits. • Other preview screenings: A distributor will consider the use of advance public screenings to create word-of-mouth and advance 'buzz' around a film 36

Marketing Campaign above the line advertising • • • Marketing is part of the distribution process as when distributors do deals with exhibitors, distributors are responsible for the promotion of the film, so that people will go to the cinema to see the film. involves the promotions of the films and can take the following forms: Posters: A tease poster released before the main poster to generate information. This is expensive marketing because of printing and time costs, but is an effective way of generating pre-release interest. Film posters include key elements, i. e. generic codes of the film i. e mise-en scene- guns for actions, a well known star or director will have their name on it to promote the film. Trailer: Higher budget films will also have a teaser trailer, watch teaser trailers for Avatar and the main trailer what do you notice. James Cameron and all his films are promoted, why do this? Trailers in the UK have to get BBFC certificate rating just like the films, this means most distributors would want a 12 a so they can get to a wider audience as possible remember who goes to the cinema the most. Genre of the film has to be apparent in the film. Key scenes, dialogue but not to ruin the surprise, if the film is star driven i. e Robert Patterson this needs to be mentioned in the trailer. All films need to have a USP, what is your films poster, trailer saying?

Breaking dawn scenes cut • The British Board of Film Classification advised producers to edit the “graphic sight of Edward thrusting while he lies on top of Bella” to avoid the film being given a 15 certificate. • “This film was originally shown to the BBFC in an unfinished version, ” a statement on the BBFC website says. “The BBFC advised the company that the film was likely to receive a ’ 15′ classification but that the requested ’ 12 A’ certificate could be achieved by making changes to a sex scene between the Edward and Bella characters. • “In particular the BBFC suggested that [the] more graphic sight of Edward thrusting while he lies on top of Bella, and while her legs are wrapped around his torso, be removed. • “When the finished version of the film was submitted these changes had been made, with the scene having been reduced in length and with less focus on full body shots. As a result, the film was classified ’ 12 A’. ” • We’re not sure what the Motion Picture Association of America had to say, but we assume they too wanted this scene cut down so it could receive a PG-13 rating. • The first Breaking Dawn – Part 1 trailer includes a shot of the sex scene (at 1: 17): read: http: //www. hypable. com/twilight/2011/10/29/bbfc-revealsscene-that-needed-to-be-cut-for-breaking-dawn-to-receive-pg-13 -and-notr-rating/ 38

• The distributor will enter into an agreement with the cinema to screen the film on certain 'play-dates'. It is the responsibility of the distributor to arrange the transportation of the film to the cinema, as part of its wider coordination of print use across the UK. Logistics represents the phase of distribution at its most basic - supplying and circulating copies of the film to theatres, of tapes and DVDs to shops and video rental stores, and managing the effectiveness of the supply. The showing of films in cinemas is a time-pressured activity. Cinemas spend their money publicising film play-dates and times in local papers or through published programmes. There's an imperative for the distributor to deliver the film on time. • For UK theatrical exhibition, the distributor typically handles 35 mm film prints. Each print can cost around £ 1, 000 - or twice that if subtitled - so a degree of care is required of everyone involved in handling the print. In the UK, prints are generally broken down for ease of handling into smaller reels, each lasting around 18 -20 mins when run through a projector at 24 frames per second. So a feature print, in its physical form, will usually be 5 or 6 reels, stored and supplied in a single hard case, weighing in at 20 -25 kgs. Prints are hired by the exhibitor for the duration of their playdates, and therefore each print is made for repeat use. It's easy to see from this that, during the course of even a short theatrical release period, any single print needs to be moved many times from the main print warehouse, onto a delivery van, to the cinema, onto an assembly bench, through the projector and then back through the process and onto the next cinema. • 35 mm theatrical prints invariably suffer cumulative damage as they pass through different projectors, and the hands of various projectionists. There also overheads incurred by the distributor for the storage of prints at the UK's central print warehouse in West London. For these reasons, each theatrical print has a finite lifespan. Distributor will invest in sufficient prints to provide optimum coverage through the first period of theatrical release, usually lasting up to 6 months. From this point on, many of the now used release prints will be destroyed, leaving only a small number to be used for second-run and repertory theatrical bookings through the remainder of the film's licenced period. 39

Exhibition § Exhibition is how the films are shown and where they are shown i. e. through cinema, DVD, online etc • For instances the traditional films are exhibited and cinemas through a 35 mm film. These largely benefit for big studios and Hollywood studios because of the cost of 35 mm print. • Smaller independent studios often use Film festival to exhibit and promote their film, or the digital screen network 40

Exhibition This is the process of showing a film to an audience, mainly referring to a cinema environment, but with the advent of new digital projection equipment and DVD players, screenings in schools, colleges, art centres and outdoor venues are future possibilities. The Role of the Exhibitor Film bookings After viewing the film from the distributors for release, the exhibitor/film booker will discuss the release pattern and the financial deal to rent a film from the UK distributor. This is based on projected ticket sales for a film, that is, box-office returns. The cinema programming is scheduled by a film booker. Some cinema chains, multiplexes and multi-screen cinemas operate from a central point or a Head Office with a booking department. The smaller cinemas have an inhouse film booker responsible for programming specific films or film seasons. The film booker working for each cinema chain is the person responsible for the films which play in each cinema. The brief for a film booker is to find films which will attract an audience for their cinema and reap a good financial return from the box office. The exhibitor pays the rental fee back to the distributor which is determined by the price of a cinema ticket within the cinema. It is up to the exhibitor to work hand in glove with the distributor in marketing the film to the widest possible audience. Most mainstream films are booked from three to six months in advance, and some major US blockbusters can be booked up to a year in advance of their UK release date. By July most film bookers will have scheduled the slate of films to be released at Christmas. 86 41

Exhibition • The cinema building The exhibitor will have posters and advertisements as well as the date and times of the screenings of current and future films outside their cinema for the interest of the general public. This is an attempt to draw the attention of the public to their cinema. A passer-by who may not have the opportunity to read a newspaper or check the internet will perhaps be encouraged by this publicity to go and see one of the films. The foyer is the first area in the cinema that the audience experiences. Distributors vie for space in the foyer to display posters, standees and other film publicity material and merchandising. It is the cinema manager's job to make sure that the publicity is current and relevant to films showing at their cinema. The exhibitor/cinema is the 'shop front' where the film industry 'sells' films to the audience. The foyers are committed to publicising the films with posters, standees and concession promotions which all advertise the film. Once you are seated in the auditorium, before the main feature, 'teaser' trailers and trailers are shown advertising films that are soon to be released all aimed at attracting a future audience. Local Marketing The exhibitor's role is important in promoting a film at a local level. The distributor and exhibitor work together to maximise the audience for a film. The cinema manager draws up a marketing plan which includes press advertising, local promotions and competitions. Conversely, cinema managers receive marketing information which keeps them abreast of the distributor's efforts to promote a film. This document tells the cinema managers what is happening and ensures that a film is, at any one time, efficiently • promoted at a local level by that cinema manager . 42

How they make money • Money taken at the box office alone is not enough to give the exhibitor/cinema a profit after paying the rental fee, especially if the film is a failure. The popcorn, ice- cream, sweets and hotdogs you can buy at the cinema are known as concessions. The concession stands in both multiplexes and independent cinemas provide an additional source of income to the exhibitor. Local press The most common form of marketing that the exhibitor will undertake is to buy space in local newspapers to advertise the films they are screening. This space can be in free newspapers and trade papers or ones which are paid for. These advertisements will often appear on the day of the films' changeover which is usually a Friday, as many chains do between 30 -60% of their business during the weekend period. Research shows that advertisements in local newspapers are one of the key ways in which people find out about films screening at their local cinema though since 1997 this has been overturned by the increasing availability of access to the internet. Promotions and competitions These are part of the overall marketing plan the exhibitor has drawn up for the distributor to maximise awareness of the film. They can take the form of competitions in local newspapers or in the cinema foyer e. g. 'spot the difference' games, quizzes on stars, with giveaway cinema tickets, or merchandise from the distributors as prizes. This also ensures editorial coverage of the film in the local press: it is a good two-way relationship – the film is covered and the newspaper has something which is entertaining to fill its pages. Trailers The trailer often plays in the cinema around six weeks before the release of a film and continues to play until the film opens in the cinema. The trailer aims to raise audience awareness of a film by fixing the film title in their minds. It gives an overall impression of the film to its potential audience making sure that the audience is aware of the stars – particularly where their names will help to sell the film. A trailer should create the desire to see the film when it eventually opens 43

audiences In this country the majority of the cinema going public are aged between 16 and 23 years old. Statistics show that they are the group which have the time and money to go to the cinema. It is this age group therefore that need to be targeted by filmmakers, distributors and exhibitors to encourage them in, and then back to, the cinema. However, the location of new multiplex cinemas has also led to the development of a more family-centered audience – who are attracted to the nearby shopping or leisure facilities as well as to the cinema itself. Baz Luhrmann's 1997 film William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet was a massive blockbuster hit, but did not have a huge publicity campaign. The film did not receive any Oscars and the reviews in the US and the UK were lukewarm. The exhibitors say that it is one of those very rare films which continue to run because the same people return to see it again and it is by word of mouth that they return. It will be one of the most enduring and profitable hits of 1997 with the core audience seemingly being under thirty, whilst the older cinema going public think that it is ‘the best Shakespearean film ever made. ’ As the cinema's image has changed and become more up-market with high-grossing films, the price of cinema seats has reflected this change and risen dramatically. It can cost £ 16 or £ 17 to see a film in central London and yet cinema audiences continue to rise. Can you think of any reasons why this is so? If the reasons are not purely economic, then the image of cinema going must surely play a part. The multiplex complexes are popular despite often involving a good deal of travelling beyond local public transport. We must now consider whether the cinema-goer is as interested in the facilities surrounding the cinema in which the film is seen as in the actual film on the screen. . 44

Background to the Cinema Exhibition in the UK Since 1995 • The number of cinema screens in the UK and the number of admissions have both increased by more than 60%. Screens: 1995 2, 005 - Admissions/per Screen: 108. 0 m/53, 865 Screens: 2001 3, 258 - Admissions/per Screen: 176. 0 m/54, 020 Screens 2007 3596 - ? Most of the screens in the UK are owned by one of the major cinema chains. Vue, UCI, Odeon or UGC. Independent cinemas accounted for only 938 screens (29% of the total number) in 2002, a decrease of 7. 5% since 1997. The cinema sector is still in some turmoil at present with two major chains having been sold recently (Warner Village Cinemas was bought by Vue cinemas in 2003) and up to three others available for sale. (May 13, 2003) Vue International Cinemas, the developer and operator of state-of-the- art-cinemas, today announced its acquisition of the Warner Village Cinema chain in the UK. The purchase of 36 Warner Village sites nationwide boosts its number of multiplex cinemas from 6 to 42 overall with a total of 384 UK screens The advent of digital cinema may change this landscape somewhat, but no-one is yet making the necessary investment in digital projection equipment and distribution systems. The UK Film Council are supporting independent cinemas' acquisition of digital technology. The world's first digital cinema network will be established in the UK over the next 18 months. 45

Exhibitor/Distributor Deals Works • They will, therefore, try to restrict the number of prints available to maximise their income from each site. How There are three different types of deal that an exhibitor might enter into with a distributor: i) The House Nut - The House Nut is a figure calculated to represent the costs of running the cinema. In a house nut deal, the rental paid to the distributor will be either 25% of the gross Box Office or 90% of the Box Office minus the house nut (what it cost to run the cinema) – whichever is greater. This is the deal structure generally favoured by the majors. ii) Scale - Under this arrangement, the amount payable to the distributor rises according to the amount that Box Office exceeds a pre-set break figure, which is often capped at 50%. Exhibitors will often offer guaranteed minimum payments and the parties may agree special terms to coverages if the film performs particularly well. This structure is often used by independent distributors. iii) Percentage - Finally, the parties might agree a straight percentage split of the Box Office. This type of deal is becoming increasingly common in the UK, being used for expected blockbusters. Cinema Revenues – How do exhibitors make money? Ticket sales are only one aspect of a cinema's revenues. In 2001, ticket sales contributed about 66% of total revenues, with concessions income and prefilm advertising accounting for around 16% each. On average, cinemas generate £ 1 of concessions income and £ 1 of advertising revenue for every person who buys a ticket. These figures are averaged across the multiplex chains and independent cinemas - in practice, the multiplexes tend to make more from sales of popcorn and drinks than the independents - between them, the top three chains sell some 16 million buckets of popcorn a year. Over the past twenty years cinema going in the UK has experienced something of a renaissance. Attendances have increased from just fifty million a year to nearly one hundred and eighty million. Experts are divided about the reasons why this should have happened. Is it that there are better quality films around that people want to see? Is it that there are now more comfortable cinemas for people to visit? Up until the mid 1980's cinemas in many countries, particularly the UK, Italy and Germany had received very little in the way of investment and because of this many cinemas deteriorated. Whereas once a trip to the cinema meant a visit to somewhere that was more comfortable than home, the state of British cinemas in the early 1980's meant that people were visiting run down, uncomfortable places. In the 1970's large, single screen cinemas had been cheaply converted into three or four screen cinemas. This would often mean that the audience in one screen could hear what was happening in the film on the screen next door. This detracted from the enjoyment of the film and consequently caused a drop in audience attendance at the cinema 46

Rise of the multiplex • With audience attendance levels declining box-office takings waned. The Hollywood distributors found themselves particularly affected by this. As a result of this decline, the major US studios realised that they would have to revitalise and invest in the European exhibition industry (it’s worth 60% of the overall international market) if their own production industry was to survive. Exhibitors also begun to realise that as well as selling films to audiences, they also have to sell their own cinemas as the best place to go and see these films. It was the major American studios, such as Universal, Warner Bros. and Paramount who were the main investors in the development of multiplexes around the world. Through detailed research they came to the conclusion that many countries did not have enough screens to cater for the audience that they were trying to develop. In the mid 1980's they also realised that the state of many cinemas in countries such as the UK was so bad that people would not want to visit them. Thus, through the building of multiplexes, companies hoped to encourage many more cinema goers into their cinemas and stimulate interest and excitement. . The US distributors determined that cinemas should be located close to large shopping centres, restaurants and other leisure pursuits. 47

Digital cinema • Towards the end of 2005, the UK distribution and exhibition sectors were starting to move towards digital distribution and exhibition. For exhibitors, digital projection, especially when married to the increasing use digital formats in production, can now replicate - if not surpass - the image quality of conventional 35 mm cinema presentation. And, of course, digital sound systems have been used in cinemas for some time. • In distribution terms, the advantages of digital technology are even clearer, though perhaps longer term. Digital technology is seen to offer a more cost effective and logistics-light alternative to the tried and trusted, but unwieldy model of 35 mm print distribution described above. It will, eventually, be cheaper and much less stressful to send films as computer files to cinemas across the UK, than to transport 20 -25 kg tins of film in the back of a van. • Digital technology also made it possible for smaller companies to compete because it was a lot cheaper to produce. 48

Digital cinema • Since mid-1999 public screenings of digitally projected, mainstream feature films have been taking place in selected cinemas worldwide. Millions of paying customers have attended digital cinema screenings and it is now generally accepted that conventional 35 mm film projection will soon be replaced by Digital Cinema technologies. The equipment is still expensive but the picture quality is astonishing and, some have claimed that in several respects it surpasses conventional film. The number of digital cinemas in the UK is growing rapidly and it is estimated that by the end of 2011, the majority of the UK’s 3, 000+ screens will have digital capability. • It is now accepted that the DCI approved digital cinema format will replace conventional 35 mm film projection as the principal format used in professional film distribution and exhibition. Most commercial cinemas and many independents are now in the process of making the transition to digital, installing digital projection in all their screens. 49

• The key advantages of digital cinema (‘d-cinema’ ) for local cinemas are: • The distribution of films to cinemas is potentially much cheaper, quicker and easier. Individual cinemas will potentially be able to get the latest, high earning films at the same time as West End cinemas. It will be more economically viable to distribute minority interest films and to provide subtitled or dubbed versions • The picture and sound quality will always be as good as it was at the première. No scratches, jumps, dirt or flicker to disturb the viewing experience • Local filmmakers, students and school pupils will be able to project their films to local audiences, quickly and inexpensively. • Localised advertising tailored to the particular audience will be possible • Additional smaller auditoria become viable and provide greater choice for local audiences. A local digital cinema – a digital mini-plex – may have one or two large auditoria (150 to 250 seats) and three or four very small ones (30 to 50 seats). There are now many examples of this type of cinema in the UK and the rest of Europe. • Non-film uses, especially the screening of live cultural events, may become important additional revenue streams. In some locations local businesses and education organisations will use the facilities. A number of cinemas in the UK, Europe and North America are now offering live and recorded cultural and sporting events in cinemas and reporting revenues 200% to 400% over regular film screenings. In France 300 venues, often converted town halls, offer sports and cultural events under the banner ‘Vidéo Transmission Haute Resolution’. • For the provision of regular screenings, the technology is relatively easy to use and will impact on many aspects of the cinema operation and economics. For example there are now a small number of commercial digital cinemas in the UK where front of house and technical staffing levels have been reduced to a minimum. 50

Digital cinema benefit to small companies • Digital cinema technologies are transforming the way films are made, edited, distributed and projected. There is a rapidly growing number of filmmakers who work with camera and computer equipment purchased from high street stores to produce very low budget films – sometimes with professional actors. This means that digital technology from cameras to cinema is enabling more people access to creating films. 51

Digital Screen Network • Before its closure the UK Film Council, now taken over by the BFI and the Arts Council England created the Digital Screen Network – a £ 12 million investment to equip 240 screens in 210 cinemas across the UK with digital projection technology to give UK audiences much greater choice. 52

Digital Screen Network • The average Hollywood blockbuster opens on 300 -plus screens across the UK; most independent films, restored classics, documentaries and foreign language films still struggle to reach over ten per cent of those screens. • Digital screening cuts the cost of releasing films (a digital copy costs around one tenth of a 35 mm print). • Cinemas in the network have already screened non-mainstream films including Control, This is England, Good Night and Good Luck and the Oscar®-winning The Lives of Others, as well as classics like Meet me in St Loius, The Wizard of Oz and Casablanca. • The (DSN) Digital Screen network is beneficial to independent and British production companies because they show non-mainstream films and they also do not rely on having to use a distributor or 35 mm film. 53

Film festival • Film festivals are another way to exhibit films, this benefits both the independent companies and smaller studios who use these to promote their films. For instance if they do well at festivals then the film receives below the line free advertising through TV and media channels that cover the event. Major studios also show their work this included Avatar which was shown at a Dubai Film Festival. • Warp films film Tyrannosaur, has won the Golden Hitchcock Award this year. Again this helps to promote the film. • Examples include Sundance Festival and Cannes Film festival. 54

Exhibition summary • Along with the impact of digital technology from digital cinemas, digital cameras makes it more easy for independent production companies to produce and distribute their films via the (DSN). This is because the (DSN) aimed at help non-mainstream films get shown, rather than competing against big budget films and major studios who promoted their films and could show it in more cinemas. • Further as Love Film has shown they are using digital technology to stream films through the internet, even SKY has a Go app where through a Wifi connection you can watch films, and Xbox live you can rent films. In the future it seems more likely people will be able to watch films at home than go to the cinema. This creates a problems for the major companies as they will lose some of their distribution and exhibition power unless they adapt. It also opens up the possibility for little studios to promote their films online. This has already happened with the film Zeitgeist an alternative documentary movie which was released online. However, it is also important to remember with a lot of these online web 2, 0 websites they are owned by media conglomerates i. e Google who owns Youtube, News Corp who owns Sky. This means they have still the means to exhibit and promote their films without cinemas and the big budgets to continue to make mainstream blockbuster films, and use 55 their own.

The importance of cross media convergence and synergy in production, distribution and marketing. This section will link with Power. Point 2 case studies, which shows these in practice but a definition includes Convergence CONVERGENCE Convergence describes two phenomena: First, technologies coming together, for example, a mobile phone you can use as a still and moving image camera, download and watch moving images on, use as an MP 3 player and recorder and access the internet with. Second, media industries are diversifying so they produce and distribute across several media—for example, a newspaper with an online version and audio podcasts or the coming together of videogames with films. We no longer live in a media world where television, videogames, films, newspapers, radio, magazines and music exist separately. For this reason it is essential that you study the impact of convergence on the film industry — the focus here is on the contemporary. Synergy: In media revenue, synergy is the promotion and sale of a product throughout the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate, e. g. films, soundtracks, or video games. I. e. Working Title owned by Universal made the Boat that Rocked, the Soundtrack was owned by Mercury record label which is also owned by Universal 56

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