Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008 Forelæsning 8

Psykologiens Historie og Genstandsområde 2008 Forelæsning 8

Charles Darwin

Francis Galton

William James

William James 1842 -1910 Henry James

William James 1842 -1910 Emanuel Swedenborg

William James 1842 -1910

I suffer not only from ”insomnia, digestive disorders, eye troubles, weakness of the back and sometimes deep depression of spirits”, but ocassionally from ”a horrible fear of my own existence. ”

Jubii, evolution og darwinisme i praksis! Med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.

Det er døden! James med Louis Aggasiz til Brasilien.

James besøger fysiologerne og psykologerne i Tyskland.

James begynder at undervise i den nye psykologi på Harvard. James skriver kontrakt om lærebog.

Efter megen pres fra forlæggeren ud-kommer bogen i 1890 - 12 år senere.

Den forkortede udgave udkommer i 1892, og herefter gider James ikke længere være psykolog.

I hate psycholog y that nasty little science!

”The thought of psycho-physical and altogether of brass”This method and instrumental taxes patience to the utmost, algebraic-formula and hardly could me psychology fills have arisen in a country with horror!” whose natives could be bored. ” W. James: Principles of Psychology 1890/1950 p. 192 -193.

”Such Germans as ” Weber, …obviously Fechner…and Wundt cannot. ” …”

1878 I am impresse d! The Metaphysical Club, Harvard University Charles Sanders Peirce 1839 -1914 In my article, How to make our Ideas clear, in 1878, James ville i stedet være filosof. I said: ”Consider what effect, which might conceivably have practical bearing, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of those effects is the whole of our conceptions of the object. ”

Now listen to me everybody! Sigh!

”’The true’, to put it very briefly, is only the expedient in the way of our behaving, just as ’the right’ is only the expedient in the way of our behaving. ” FUNKTION

”It is very generally admitted…that consciousness grows the more complex and intense the higher we rise in the animal kingdom. That of a man must exceed that of an oyster. From this point of view it seems an organ, superadded to the other organs which maintain the animal in the struggle for existence; and the presumption…is that it helps him in some way FUNKTION

FUNKTION ”The pursuance of future ends and the choice of means for their attainment are thus the mark and criterion of the presence of mentality in a phenomenon. ” 1 Søgen Objekt som intention. 2 3 Sporing Objekt som information. Håndtering Objekt som GENSTAND. 4 Konsumtio n Objekt som værdi.

”The kind of psychology which could cure a case of melancholy, or charm a chronic insane delusion away, ought certainly to be preferred to the most seraphic insight into the nature of the soul. ” Det lyder fornuftigt!

Jo, men så skal jeg finde en nørd, jeg kan lokke til at overtage mit professorat i psykologi ved Harvard. Tag en tysker, du, det er godt råd!

Hugo Münsterberg 1863 -1916 Det lykkedes.

I have “twenty-seven rooms overspun with electric wires and filled with chronoscopes and kymographs and tachistoscopes and ergographs and a mechanic busy at his work. ”

”Det er mere naturligt at drikke vandet end at analysere dets elementer i laboratoriet. ” Men så blev også Münsterberg grebet af amerikansk pragmatisme. Selvfølge lig er det!

Class room Münsterberg opfinder pædagogisk psykologi Münsterberg opfinder kriminalpsykologi Münsterberg opfinder terapeutisk psykologi Münsterberg opfinder arbejdspsykologi Münsterberg opfinder jobpsykologi Münsterberg opfinder organisationspsykologi

Hugo Münsterberg opfinder herefter i Amerika helt alene ”Psychologists DEN ANVENDTE PSYKOLOGI. Og får en sørgelig in the sweat of their brows skæbne. (Herom se study what everyone knows. ” Powerpointpræsentationen General psychology 10) Piet Hein

William James’ hus i Harvard UHUU, UHUU. S JAME Drinking? What’s the Fornicating? matter, son? Not paying My landlady is rent? going to throw me out from my room.

William James’ hus i Harvard Yes, well, Edward. But why do Are you a country boy, to you want Edward? keep chicken in your lodgings, son? Edwar d, sir. S JAME I see. She says I can’t keep chicken in my It is nothing like that, room! sir. I need the chicken for my learning experiments.

William James’ hus i Harvard Gee thanks, I shall, professor Yes, well, just be professor James! sure to remember what I have taught, S JAME Edward. Learning experiments Yes, I want to become a I Look ? see. here, Edward, if everything your …. you can psychologist like That shouldrunelse fails…. chicken the please my inyou, professor James. basement children! of my house.

Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949

Thorndike

Thorndike TRIAL AND ERROR

Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949

ØVELSESLOVEN LAW OF EXERCISE ”Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with that situation and to the average vigor and duration of the connections. ” William James Habit eller Vane. Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949

EFFEKTLOVEN LAW OF EFFECT Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the Those which are accompanied animal will, closely followed with or other things being equal, be more firmly the animal will, discomfort to connectedother the situation, equal, have with things being so that when their connections with that it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; situation weakened, so that, [fortsættes] when it recurs, they will be less likely to recur. ” William James selektion af det funktionelle Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949

Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949 ”Pleasure stamps in, pain stamps out!” William James selektion af det funktionelle

1929 ”I was wrong! ” Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949

”I learned that somewhat similar experiments on animals had been performed in America, and indeed not by physiologists but by psychologists…and now I must acknowledge that the honour of having made the first steps along this path belongs to E. L. Thorndike. By two or three years his experiments proceeded Ivan Petrovich ours. ” Pavlov 1849 – 1936 Nobelprisen 1904 Edward Lee Thorndike 1874 -1949

Naturlig refleks 1. Stimulus 2. Respons

Naturlig refleks HVAD LAVER DU? ? ?

Naturlig refleks Aha!

Naturlig stimulus Naturlig respons

Sagen uvedkommend e stimulus

Naturlig stimulus Naturlig respons

KLASSISK BETINGNING Betinget stimulus Signalindlæring Betinget respons

KLASSISK BETINGNING

DING-DING-DING-DING G. Fec T. h Elem ner e e d nt Psy er c phy hosik 186 0

G. Fec T. h Elem ner e e d nt Psy er c phy hosik DING-DING-DING-DING 186 0

1860 G. T. Fechner Element e der Psychophysik

KLASSISK BETINGNING Reinforcering Forstærkning Ekstinktion Udslukning Spontan genopdukk en Inhibition og Sensorisk disinhibitio generaliseri n ng Sensorisk diskriminati on Eksperimen tel neurose

Thorndike Pavlov ER IKKE ENS! Skal erstatte en stimulus med en anden STIMULUS SUBSTITITIO N Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING

Pavlov Klassisk betinging RESPONDEN T Skal erstatte en stimulus med en anden STIMULUS Skinner SUBSTITITIO N Thorndike Instrumentel betinging OPERANT Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING

Modtage Pavlov Klassisk betinging RESPONDEN T Skal erstatte en stimulus med en anden STIMULUS Skinner SUBSTITITIO N Serve Thorndike Instrumentel betinging OPERANT Skal undslippe indespærring v. AKTIV HANDLING

Modtage Serve H. S. Jennings 1 J. Loeb 2 Søgen Objekt som intention. 3 Sporing Objekt som information. Håndtering Objekt som GENSTAND. 4 Konsumtio n Objekt som værdi.

Uddannet i Tyskland som forstmand med en særlig interesse for plantefysiologi. Begyndte studier af primitive dyrs bevægelser i Würzburg på en Romanes-agtig måde. Jacques Loeb 1859 -1924 Efter sit møde med Ernst Machs Analysis of Sensation (: science is ”consisting of the completest possible presentment of facts with the least expenditure of thought. ”) bliver det Loebs mål at finde det simpleste princip for at kontrollere adfærd.

Solens stråler påvirker cellernes kemiske processer, således

at plantevævsaktiviteten er kraftigst, hvor lyspåvirkningen er kraftigst, hvilket betyder

at planten ’strækker sig’ mod sollyset.

Denne fysio-kemiske bevægemåde kaldes en TROPISME. I dette tilfælde en HELIOTROPISME.

Tropismer navngives efter den stimulus, der afstedkommer reaktionen, og deles i positive og negative

Loeb mente, at den samme fysisk-kemiske tropismemekanisme kunne forklare dyrenes bevægelsemåde. Med disse dyr gik det vel meget godt: Jacques Loeb

Men hvad med dem her. Og det var dem, slaget stod om. Jacques Loeb Det vil sige, TAXIS

Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd. ”The tropism theory might include human conduct also. ” (1919) Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet. Jacques Loeb Aristotle Y Mennesker: Fornuft, Alle levende væsener skal grundlæggende forstås som sprog og evnen til at leve i samfund. Y Højere dyr: Forestillingsbilleder, drømme, erindring og fantasi. Y Dyr: Stedbevægelse og perception. Y Alt levende: Indtage næring, vokse og formere sig.

Loeb mente imidlertid, at tropismen kunne forklare al adfærd. ”The tropism theory might include human conduct also. ” (1919) Dette kan kaldes ’The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ – titlen på Loebs bog fra 1912 – bemærk årstallet. Jacques Loeb kom til University of Chicago i 1891, hvor han bl. a. fik Dewey og Mead som kolleger. hyldest til Loeb som ”prophet of the new movement”: ”Starting in 1888, he set his face against anthropomorphism and teleology and began the attempt to describe all behavior in physical and chemical terms. ” (Fraenkell & Gunn, 1961, p. 6)

Jennings var søn af en Darwinentusiastisk farmer-doctor og begyndte at studere hvirvelløse dyrs fysiologi og adfærd, først på Harvard (hvor hans lærer var Loeb-fan), senere i Chicago, hvor Dewey gjorde stort indtryk på ham. Herbert Spencer Jennings 1868 -1947 Sit post-doctorale arbejde udførte han i Jena i Tyskland under datidens berømte ekspert i primitive dyr, Verworn. Vi skal bemærke ham for to vigtige ting: 1. Identifikationen af det psykiske i selve adfærden. 2. Afvisningen af, at adfærd kan reduceres til stimulus-response alene.

Jennings’ interesse var at finde det elementære livsgrundlag for det psykiske. ”the psychological processes in the realm of the protista are the bridge which connects the chemical processes of inorganic nature with the mental life of the highest animals… the development of the human psyche begins with those very psychological processes found in the protista, since the human egg has essentially the same status as a single cellular organism. ”

Behavior of the Lower Organisms 1906: 1 2 Søgen Objekt som intention. 3 4 Sporing Håndterin g Konsumti on Objekt som informati on. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi.

Behavior of the Lower Organism 1906: 1 2 Søgen Objekt som intention. 3 4 Sporing Håndterin g Konsumti on Objekt som informati on. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. ”The writer is thoroughly convinced, after long study of the behavior of this organism, that if Amoeba were a large animal, so as to come within the everyday experience of human beings, its behavior would at once call forth the attribution to it of states of pleasure and pain, of hunger, desire, and the like, on precisely the same basis as we attribute these things to the dog. ” ”In conducting objective investigations we train ourselves to suppress this impression, but thorough investigation tend to restore it stronger than at first. ”

The behavior of organisms, 1906: 1 2 Søgen Objekt som intention. 3 4 Sporing Håndterin g Konsumti on Objekt som informati on. Objekt som GENSTAND. Objekt som værdi. the lower "A first and essential point for the understanding of behavior is that activity occurs in organisms without present external stimulation. The normal condition of the Paramecium is an active one, with its cilia in rapid movement; it is only under special conditions that it can be brought partly to rest. . . The organism is activity, and its activities may be spontaneous, so far as the present stimuli are concerned. "

”…the truth of matter is I have never been able to read Jennings through; his whole criticism of the tropism theory seemed so strange to me that I always lost patience whenever I began to read, and turned the pages aside; and when finally Mast began to write I stopped reading them * altogether. ” * brev til T. H. Morgan, genetikeren der opfandt brugen af bananfluer.

Nå, ja. Skidt med Jennings. I praksis var det jo nok mig, der vandt. Det var mig, der fik John!!!

White trash sydstatsfamilie. Moderen stærkt religiøs, faderen voldsmand, drikkebror, skørtejæger og døgenigt. Juvenile delinquent – drikkeri, racistiske slagsmål – skyderi. Mønsterbryder og snyder til sig college. I 1915 – 37 år gammel bliver Watson valgt til præsident for the American Psychological Association. I was ”lazy, insurbordinate, vicious and violent. A poor student, constantly in trouble with both school John B. and civic autorities. ” Watson 1878 -1958

Hans collegelærer koster ham et ekstra år og skaffer ham ind på University of Chicago, hvor han får John Dewey som lærer. Men også Jacques Loeb. Afhandling 1903: Animal Education. The Psychical Development of the White rat. Dyreeksperimenter med aber, høns, hunde katte, frøer, fisk og terner. ”I never wanted to use Ham human subjects… I forstod jeg Han var af! Ham ikke et kukgod. was always ville jeg lave en Phd uncomfortable and hos! acted unnaturally. With animals I was at home. ” John B. Watson 1878 -1958

Jeg lavede en mini-kopi af den berømte labyrint i Hampton Court og lod mine rotter lære den.

Det kunne de sagtens. Men hvordan bar de sig ad? Hvilke sanser brugte de?

Først Jeg jeg blindede brugte Men de kunne stadig extirpationsmetode dem. Så det var finde vej. er en slags n, som ikke synet, som de udelukkelsesmeto brugte. de.

Så stoppede jeg deres ører til. Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke hørelsen, som de brugte.

Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af.

Så klippede jeg deres knurhår af. Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke den taktile følesans, som de brugte.

Så skar jeg næsen af dem.

Så skar jeg næsen af dem. Men de kunne stadig finde vej, så det var ikke lugtesansen, som de brugte.

Så klippede jeg benene af dem.

Så klippede jeg NU KUNNE DE benene af dem. IKKE FINDE VEJ! Jeg havde hermed bevist, at rotterne brugte muskelsansen til at finde vej!

Den lærer er ikke til at stole på. SELVFØLGELIG skar jeg ikke benene af dem!

Click! s-r s-r s-r Kæderefleksteorien Men ellers er det rigtig nok.

I 1913 udgav Watson i Psychological Review sit berømte manifest: ”Psychology as the Behaviorist sees it is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to introspection in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal responses, recognizes no diving

I 1919 begyndte Watson at studere spædborn Det er i den forbindelse, at vi skal se Watsons andet berømte forsøg. Forsøget med Lille Albert.

John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner: Conditioned emotional reactions 1920. Forsøget med Lille Albert.

1. akt Albert præsenteres for en rotte Albert smiler glad til rotten

2. akt Albert præsenteres for en rotte Hvorefter der kommer en høj lyd Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

3. akt Albert præsenteres for en rotte Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

4. akt Albert præsenteres for en kanin Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

5. akt Albert præsenteres for juleskæg Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

6. akt Albert præsenteres for mors pels Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde.

2. akt Albert præsenteres for en rotte Hvorefter der kommer en høj lyd Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde. ubetinget response ubetinget stimulus

3. akt Albert præsenteres for en rotte Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde. betinget stimulus betinget response

4. akt Albert præsenteres for en kanin eller julemandsskæg eller mors pels. Albert bliver forskrækket og begynder at græde. Stim gen ulus eral iser in g

BELØ NNING

BELØ NNING STRA F

Albert blev aldrig afbetinget. Det var Peter Men altså ikke Albert

gnæk, gnæk ”The Freudians twenty years from now…when they come to analyze Albert’s fear of a seal skin coat…will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream… as an explanation of this avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the factors which brought about the fear. ”

• Throughout his marriage Watson had affairs with many women, but then he fell hopelessly in love with his research assistent, Rosalie Rayner. • Watson allowed his feelings to become known and wrote many passionate letters to Rosalie. • His wife, Mary Watson, obtained these letters by feigning illness while visiting Rosalie’s parents, asking for a few minutes to lie down, and using her time alone to search Rosalie’s beedroom. • Her mistake was to show the letters to her brother, John, a mercenary character whose reaction was to demand money from watson and from Rosalie’s rich and socially prominent Baltimore family. • When they refused, the letters mysteriously fell into the hands of President Goodnow of John Hopkins. Etc. , etc.

Watson måtte forlade universitetet og begynde en ny karriere. Eksempelvis: In an. Johnson and Johnson To increase the sales of the In a advertisement for one carefully controlled Scott Paper Company, Watson Maxwell House Coffee, experiment Watson found Baby Powder campaign that Han startede fra bunden i featured awere unable to a Watson at first-time coffee smokers photograph of aimed devised the mothers, reklamebureauet Walter surgical stressedwork, with the break, which became a of discriminate at brand Watson team onethe purity Thomson, og sluttede som caption of American life. began feature ”And theanother, so he cigarettes from trouble and cleanliness of the product dets vicedirektør. with harsh toilet tissue. ” used slogans like ”I’d and the dangers of dirtwalk an extra mile disease. for a Camel!” Man kan sige, at han ”The consumer is to the revolutionerede branchen manufacturer, the ved at forstå den department emotionelle betingnings stores and advertising agencies, betydning. what the green frog is to the physiologists. ” Et eksempel på Watsons arbejde

William Mc. Dougall 1871 -1938 Foreslår en behavioristisk psykologi i 1908. Ja, men ikke noget med kun reflekser og …det skal stimulus-respons, det være ”The healthy skal være purposiv up animal is virkelighedstro og behavior! and doing!” common sense….

1 2 Søgen Objekt som intention. 3 Sporing Objekt som information. Håndtering Objekt som GENSTAND. 4 Konsumtio n Objekt som værdi. 1. Purposive behavior is spontaneous. That is, unlike reflexive behavior, it need not be elicited by a known stimulus. 2. In the absence of environmental stimulation, it persists for a relatively long time. 3. It varies. Although the goal of purposive behavior remains constant, the behavior used to attain the goal may vary. If an obstacle is encountered, an alternate route is taken to reach the goal. 4. Purposive behavior terminates when the goal is attained. 5. Purposive behavior becomes more effective with practice. That is, the useless aspects of behavior is gradually eliminated. Trial-and-error is purposive, not