PSYCHOLOGY Read Orange Book Chapter 9 MEMORY
Memory § Peg-word system § this mnemonic system requires the memorization of a list of peg-words § One is a bun… § Two is a shoe… § Three is tree…
Memory § Visual imagery § visually seeing an association between words using vivid imagery, interaction with the images, and bizarreness
Memory § Method of loci § mentally placing items to be remembered around a familiar location, usually our own home or room, and then calling forth the image of the room when you need to remember information associated with the house or its rooms
Memory TH- EDO- GSA- WTH- ECA- T
Memory TH- EDO- GSA- WTH- ECA- T THE DOG SAW THE CAT
Memory IAMNOWHERE
Memory IAMNOWHERE I AM NOW HERE I AM NO WHERE
Memory 1492177617891812191419181939 194119451963196519752001
Memory 1492 1776 1789 1812 1914 1918 1939 1941 1945 1963 1965 1975 2001
Memory Chunking Pi 3. 1415926535897932384
Memory § 1. ) Memory § persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information § 2. ) Flashbulb Memory § a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event- September 11 th, 2001
Memory § Memory as Information Processing § similar to a computer § write to file § save to disk § read from disk § 3. ) Encoding § the processing of information into the memory system § i. e. , extracting meaning
Memory § 4. ) Storage § the retention of encoded information over time § 5. ) Retrieval § process of getting information out of memory
Memory § 6. ) Sensory Memory § the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system § 7. ) Working Memory § focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
Memory § 8. ) Short-Term Memory § activated memory that holds a few items briefly § look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten § 9. ) Long-Term Memory § the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Encoding: Getting Information In Encoding Effortful Automatic
Encoding § 10. ) Automatic Processing § unconscious encoding of incidental information § space § time § frequency § well-learned information § word meanings § we can learn automatic processing § reading backwards
Encoding § 11. ) Effortful Processing § requires attention and conscious effort § 12. ) Rehearsal § conscious repetition of information § to maintain it in consciousness § to encode it for storage
Encoding “The amount remembered depends on the amount of time that I spend learning” - Ebbinghaus
Encoding § Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables § TUV ZOF GEK WAV § the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 § 13. ) Spacing Effect § distributed practice yields better longterm retention than massed practice
Encoding: Serial Position Effect 14. ) Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list 20 minute study sessions
What Do We Encode? § 15. ) Semantic Encoding § encoding of meaning § including meaning of words § 16. ) Acoustic Encoding § encoding of sound § especially sound of words § 17. ) Visual Encoding § encoding of picture images
What Do We Encode? § Is the word in capital letters? § chair § Does the word rhyme with train? § brain § Would the word fit in this sentence? § elephant § The girl put the ____ on the table.
Encoding
Encoding § 18. ) Imagery § mental pictures § a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding § 19. ) Mnemonics § memory aids § especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Encoding § 20. ) Chunking § organizing items into familiar, manageable units § like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 § often occurs automatically § use of acronyms § HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior § ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding § Hierarchies § complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic Encoding) Imagery (visual Encoding) Chunks Organization Hierarchies
Storage: Retaining Information § 21. ) Iconic Memory § a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli § a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second § 22. ) Echoic Memory § momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage: Short-Term Memory § 23. ) Short-Term Memory § limited in duration and capacity § 18 to 30 seconds § “magical” number 7+/-2
Storage: Long-Term Memory Synaptic changes § when learning occurs more of the neurotransmitter serotonin is released at the synapses where learning is going on § these synapses then become more efficient at transmitting signals
Storage: Long-Term Memory § this increased synaptic efficiency makes for more neural circuits § By rapidly stimulating these memory-circuit connections, they become sensitive for hours or even weeks to come § This prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing is called long-term potentiation § 24. ) Long-term Potentiation § increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Storage: Long-Term Memory § Long-term Potentiation provides the neural basis for learning and remembering associations § This increased sensitivity at neural level when people are engaged in effortful processing of information leads to learning § Strong emotions and intentional effortful processing make for stronger memories § The implications of this knowledge may lead to memory boosting drugs, or “cognitive enhancers” § These drugs might be helpful for the millions of people with Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
Storage: Long-Term Memory § 25. ) Amnesia--the loss of memory § Retrograde amnesia- old memories § Anterograde amnesia- new memories § 26. ) Explicit Memory § memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare § also called declarative memory § 27. ) hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage § 28. ) Implicit Memory § retention independent of conscious recollection § also called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term Memory § MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) left hippocampus- verbal information right hippocampus- visual designs Hippocampus
Retrieval: Getting Information Out § 29. ) Recall § measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier § as on a fill-in-the blank test § 30. ) Recognition § Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned § as on a multiple-choice test
Retrieval § 31. ) Relearning § memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time § 32. ) Priming § activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Retrieval Cues § 33. ) Deja Vu (French)--already seen § cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience § "I've experienced this before. " § 34. ) Mood-congruent Memory § tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood § memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues § 35. ) State-dependent Memory § what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
Retrieval Cues § After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Forgetting § Forgetting as encoding failure § Information never enters the long-term memory Attention External events Short- Encoding Sensory term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Longterm memory
Forgetting § Forgetting as encoding failure § Which penny is the real thing?
Forgetting Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 § Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-initially rapid, then levels off with time 50 40 30 20 10 0 12345 10 15 20 25 Time in days since learning list 30
Forgetting § The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Percentage of 100% original 90 vocabulary 80 retained Retention drops, 70 then levels off 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course
Retrieval § Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Short-term Long-term memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting
Interference AP p. 379, Reg p. 362 § Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information § 36. ) Proactive Interference (forward acting) § disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information § 37. ) Retroactive Interference (backwards acting) § disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
Forgetting as Interference
Forgetting § Retroactive Interference Percentage 90% of syllables 80 recalled 70 Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep 60 50 40 30 20 10 After remaining awake 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours elapsed after learning syllables 8
Forgetting § Forgetting can occur at any memory stage § As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Forgetting. Interference § 38. ) Motivated Forgetting § people unknowingly revise memories § 39. ) Repression § defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Memory Construction § We filter information and fill in missing pieces § 40. ) Misinformation Effect § incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event § 41. ) Source Amnesia § attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction Depiction of actual accident § Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? ” Memory construction
Memory Construction § Memories of Abuse § Repressed or Constructed? § Child sexual abuse does occur § Some adults do actually forget such episodes § False Memory Syndrome § condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience § sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction § Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable § Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable § Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting § § §
Improve Your Memory § Study repeatedly to boost recall § Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material § Make material personally meaningful § Use mnemonic devices § associate with peg words--something already stored § make up story § chunk--acronyms
Improve Your Memory § Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood § Recall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformation § Minimize interference § Test your own knowledge § rehearse § determine what you do not yet know
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