PSY 369 Psycholinguistics A Crash Course in Linguistic

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PSY 369: Psycholinguistics A Crash Course in Linguistic Theory

Hello there! n Multiple levels of analysis n n Word order important (don’t say “There Hello!”) Each word composed of a sequence of sounds Sentence is uttered in a particular tone of voice (signified by the “!”, rather than a “Hello there? ”) Used to signal particular part of a social interaction (would say it at the beginning of the interaction, not when leaving or in the middle)

Levels of analysis language n n n Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics structure medium of transmission phonetics grammar phonology morphology syntax pragmatics use meaning (semantics) lexicon discourse

Phonology n The sounds of a language n Phonemes, allophones & phones n n Phonemes - abstract (mental) representations of the sound units in a language Allophones - different sounds that get categorized as the same phoneme Phones - a general term for the sounds used in languages Rules about how to put the sounds together n Includes sound structures like syllables, onsets, rhymes

Phonology allophones Listen to the ‘p’ sound pill [ph] spill [p] phonemes /p/ Rule: If /p/ is used in word initial position you add aspiration (a puff of air), if word internal don’t aspirate

Finding phonemes n Substitution and minimal pairs n n Take a word (e. g, "tie" /ta. I/) and find the words that share the same sequence /a. I/, but contrast at their beginnings. If the switch in initial sound changes the meaning, it is evidence of separate phonemes n n pie, buy, tie, die, sigh, lie, my, guy, why, shy Gives us /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /s/ /l/ /m/ /g/ /w/ /sh/

Articulatory features n Point of articulation n Six major points: n n Larynx, soft palate, tongue body, tongue tip, tongue root, lips Manner How the articulator moves: nasality, aspiration, etc. n Configuration of other organs n n Voiced, rounded, etc.

Phonology + voice /b/ - voice /p/ /d/ /t/ bilabial alveolar see mixed features

Phonemes: articulatory features full chart Symbols and sounds Place of articulation front ----------------> back Bilabial Labiodental (inter)dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Manner of Articulation Stops voiced unvoiced Fricatives voiced unvoiced Affricates k g t d p b voiced unvoiced Nasals voiced f v m Liquids lateral nonlateral Glides s z h n l voiced r w y See Table 4. 1 of textbook, pg 73

Phonemes n Languages differ in two ways (with respect to phonology) – the set of segments that they employ. • English has about 40 phonemes • Polynesian has ~11 Hawaiian • Khoisan (‘Bushman’) has ~141 listen to clicks - the set of phonological rules

Phonological Rules n Some non-words are “legal” and some are not – “spink” is okay – “ptink” isn’t – (but notice that apt is, as is captain) – In English the segment /pt/ isn’t acceptable in the word initial position

Psychological reality of phonemes n Miller & Nicely (1955) n n Participants were presented phonemes embedded in white noise. When they made mistakes, confusions between phonemes which varied by one feature were more common than those that varied by two features /b/ /p/ /d/ /t/

Psychological reality of phonemes n Liberman et al (1957) categorical perception of phonemes n n Presented consonant-vowel syllables along a continuum The consonants were /b/, /d/, and /g/, followed by /a/ n n n for example, /ba/. Asked whether two syllables were the same or different Participants reported n n Various forms of /ba/ to be the same Whereas /ga/ and /ba/ were easily discriminated.

Morphology n Morpheme – smallest unit that conveys meaning yes unhappiness horses talking no internal morphological structure /y/, /e/, /s/ none have meaning in isolation un- -happi- -ness horse- -s talk- -ing happy, horse, talk unnegative -ness state/quality -s plural -ing duration

Morphology n Morpheme Productivity n n Free morphemes: can stand alone as words Bound morphemes: can not stand alone as words n n Inflectional rules n n n Affixes, pre-fixes, suffixes, infixes used to express grammatical contrasts in sentences e. g. , singular/plural, past/present tense Derivational rules n n Construction of new words, or change grammatical class e. g. , drink --> drinkable, infect --> disinfect

Phonology & morphology interaction n Allomorphs: different variations of the same morpheme Plural rule in English The plural morpheme takes the form: /-iz/ If the last sound in a noun is a sibilant consonant “churches” /-z/ if the last sound in a noun is voiced “labs” /-s/ if the last sound in a noun is voiceless “bets”

Morphology n Language differences n n Isolating languages: no endings, just word order (e. g. , Chinese & Vietnamese) Inflecting: lots of inflections (e. g. , Latin & Greek) n n In Classic Greek every verb has 350 forms Agglutinating languages (e. g. , Turkish, Finnish, Eskimo) n Eskimo: angyaghllangyugtuq = he wants to acquire a big boat Angya- ‘boat’; -ghlla- ‘augmentative meaning’; -ng- ‘acquire’; -yug - ‘expresses desire’; -tuq- third person singular

Psychological reality of Morphology n Speech errors n Stranding errors: The free morpheme typically moves, but the bound morpheme stays in the same location n Morpheme substitutions n n n they are Turking talkish (talking Turkish) you have to square it facely (face it squarely) a timeful remark (timely) Where's the fire distinguisher? (Where's the fire extinguisher? ) Morpheme shift n n I haven't satten down and writ__ it (I haven't sat down and written it) what that add__ ups to (adds up to)

Psychological reality of Morphology n Wug test (Gleason, 1958) Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two _______.

Syntax: the ordering of the words n A dog bites a man.

Syntax: the ordering of the words n n A dog bites a man. A man bites a dog. • Same words, but different word order leads to a radically different interpretation

Syntax: the ordering of the words n n n A dog bites a man. A man bites a dog. A dog was bitten by a man. • Not just the linear ordering • It is the underlying set of syntactic rules

Syntax: the ordering of the words • The underlying structural position, rather than surface linear position matters.

Syntactic Ambiguity n (wiki) The same linear order (surface structure) may be ambiguous with respect to the underlying structure – Groucho Marx shot an elephant in his pajamas Good shot How he got into my pajamas I’ll never know

Syntactic Ambiguity

Generative Grammar n (wiki) The pieces: – Grammatical features of words • Dog: Noun • Bite: Verb – Phrase structure rules - these tell us how to build legal structures • S --> NP VP (a sentence consists of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase) • VP --> V (NP) • NP --> (A) (ADJ) N

Generative Grammar n Recursion: you can embed structures within structures n n n So we NP’s can be embedded within PP’s which in turn may be embedded within NP’s. n n NP --> (A) (ADJ) N (PP) PP --> Prep NP The dog with the bone of the dinosaur from the cave with the paintings of the animals with fur bit the man. The result is an infinite number of syntactic structures from a finite set of pieces

Chomsky’s Linguistics n Chomsky proposed that grammars could be evaluated at three levels: n Observational adequacy n n Descriptive adequacy n n Must be able to predict acceptable and unacceptable sentences Explain how sentences with similar meanings are related (e. g. , active and passive sentences) Explanatory adequacy n Must be able to explain how languages are acquired and the similarities and differences across languages (language universals)

Transformational grammar n Chomsky (1957, 1965) n Two stages phrase structures for a sentence n Build Deep Structure n n n Build from phrase structure rules One constituent at a time S --> NP VP VP --> V (NP) NP --> (A) (ADJ) N Convert to Surface Structure n n Built from transformations that operate on the deep structure n Adding, deleting, moving Operate on entire strings of constituents

Transformational grammar n 1 deep structure, 2 surface structures: n Active/passive sentences: n n The man bit the dog. The dog was bitten by the man. Passive transformation rule: NP 1 + V + NP 2 ---> NP 2 + be + V + -en + by + NP 1 n 2 deep structures, 1 surface structure: n Groucho Marx shot an elephant in pajamas

Psychological reality of syntax n Derivational theory of complexity n The more transformations, the more complex n n n The boy was bitten by the wolf The boy was bitten. (involves deletion) No evidence for more processing of the second sentence

Psychological reality of syntax n Derivational theory of complexity n The more transformations, the more complex n n The boy was bitten by the wolf The boy was bitten. (involves deletion) No evidence for more processing of the second sentence Evidence for (trace) n Some recent evidence or reactivation of moved constituent at the trace position

Transformational grammar Deep structure Surface structure S S NP VP The car VP NP PP was put the car in the garage NP PP was put (trace) in the garage probe Movement transformation VP Some “activation” of car

Psychological reality of syntax n Derivational theory of complexity n The more transformations, the more complex n n Evidence for (trace) n n The boy was bitten by the wolf The boy was bitten. (involves deletion) No evidence for more processing of the second sentence Some recent evidence or reactivation of moved constituent at the trace position Evidence for syntax n Syntactic priming

Syntactic priming Bock (1986), Task: If you hear a sentence, repeat it, if you see a picture describe it § The ghost sold the werewolf a flower The girl gave the teacher the flowers

Syntactic priming § Bock (1986) The ghost sold a flower to the werewolf The girl gave the flowers to the teacher

Syntactic priming § Bock (1986) a: The ghost sold the werewolf a flower b: The ghost sold a flower to the werewolf a: The girl gave the teacher the flowers b: The girl gave the flowers to the teacher

Semantics n The study of meaning n Arbitrariness “What’s in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. ” n Words are not the same as meaning n n Words are symbols linked to mental representations of meaning (concepts) Even if we changed the name of a rose, we wouldn’t change the concept of what a rose is

Separation of word and meaning n Concepts and words are different things n Translation argument n Every language has words without meaning, and meanings without words n n Imperfect mapping n Multiple meanings of words n n e. g. , transmogrify, wheedle, scalawag e. g. , ball, bank, bear Elasticity of meaning n Meanings of words can change with context n e. g. , newspaper

Semantics n Philosophy of meaning n Sense and reference n n n “The world’s most famous athlete. ” “The athlete making the most endorsement income. ” 2 distinct senses, 1 reference Now n Over time the senses typically stay the same, while the references may change In the 90’s

Semantics n Two levels of analysis (and two traditions of psycholinguistic research) n Word level (lexical semantics) n n n How do we store words? How are they organized? What is meaning? How do words relate to meaning? Sentence level (compositional semantics) n n How do we construct higher order meaning? How do word meanings and syntax interact?

Lexical Semantics n Word level n The (mental) lexicon: the words we know n n The average person knows ~60, 000 words How are these words represented and organized? n n Dictionary definitions? Necessary and sufficient features? Lists of features? Networks?

Word and their meanings “John is a bachelor. ” n What does bachelor mean? n What if John: n n is married? is divorced? has lived with the mother of his children for 10 years but they aren’t married? has lived with his partner Joe for 10 years?

Word and their meanings n I’m going to give you a word. Write down the first word you think of in response to that word. CAT How are your words related to ‘cat’?

Lexical Ambiguity n What happens when we use ambiguous words in our utterances? “Oh no, Lois has been hypnotized and is jumping off the bank!”

Money “bank” River “bank”

Lexical Ambiguity n Psycholinguistic evidence suggests that multiple meanings are considered n Debate: how do we decide which meaning is correct n Based on: frequency, context Hmm… ‘bank’ usually means the financial institution, but Lois was going fishing with Jimmy today …

Compositional Semantics n Phrase and sentence level n Some of theories n Truth conditional semantics: meaning is a logical relationship between an utterance and a state of affairs in the world n n Jackendoff’s semantics n n n Proposition: n A relationship between two (or more) concepts n Has a truth value Concepts are lists of features, images, and procedural knowledge Conceptual formation rules Cognitive grammar n Mental models - mental simulations of the world

Pragmatics n Sentences do more than just state facts, instead they are uttered to perform actions n n How to do things with words (J. L. Austin, 1955 lectures) Using registers Conversational implicatures Speech acts

Pragmatics n Registers: How we modify conversation when addressing different listeners n Determine our choice of wording or interpretation based on different contexts and situations n Speech directed at babies, at friends, at bosses, at foreigners

Pragmatics n Conversational implicatures n Speakers are cooperative n Grice’s conversational maxims n n Quantity: say only as much as is needed Quality: say only what you know is true Relation: say only relevant things Manner: Avoid ambiguity, be as clear as possible

Pragmatics n Speech acts: How language is used to accomplish various ends n Direct speech acts n n n Indirect speech acts n n n Open the window please. Clean up your room! “It is hot in here” “Your room is a complete mess!” Non-literal language use n e. g. , Metaphors and idioms

Pyscholinguistics and pragmatics n Three-stage theory n n Stage 1: compute the literal interpretation of the utterance Stage 2: evaluate the interpretation against assumptions n n Grice’s conversational maxims Stage 3: if interpretation doesn’t seem correct, derive (or retrieve) non-literal interpretation

Pyscholinguistics and pragmatics n One stage approaches n n Evaluate utterance at multiple levels simultaneously and select the appropriate one Use context to derive the single most-likely interpretation

Language is complex n Even though it feels simple to produce and understand language, it is a very complex behavior language structure medium of transmission phonetics grammar phonology morphology syntax pragmatics use meaning (semantics) lexicon discourse