PRONOUN O Melnik Possessive pronouns have

PRONOUN O. Melnik

Possessive pronouns • have the same distinctions of person, number, and gender as personal pronouns. • Possessive pronouns have two forms: • the dependent form (my) • the independent (or absolute) form (mine)

Reflexive pronouns • have the categories of person, number, and gender in the 3 d person singular (himself) • The archaic pronoun of the second person singular is thyself. • May be used with prepositions She was competing with herself. . . (Dreiser) She dressed herself. – obsolete • Note! they are not used after the verbs feel, relax, concentrate, meet. • Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used emphatically: Moreover, Soames himself disliked the thought of that. (Galswor thy)

Reciprocal pronouns • each other and one another. They express mutual action or relation. • Each other generally implies only two, one another two or more than two people (not always): • He had never heard his father or his mother speak in an angry voice, either to each other, himself, or anybody else. (Galsworthy) Seated in a row close to one another were three ladies — Aunts Ann, Hester, and Julie. . . (Galsworthy) • The common case of reciprocal pronouns is used as an object. • Elizabeth and George talked and found each other delightful. (Aldington) • The genitive case may be used as an at tribute. • They looked hopelessly into each other’s face. (Dodge) • May be used with prepositions: • . . . in silence they stared at each other. (Saxton)

The demonstrative pronouns • • • have two numbers: this — these; that — those. (nearer in time or space and farther away in time or space). The pronoun such. She wore a red ribbon in her hair, and was the only one of the white company who could boast of such a pronounced adorn ment. (Hardy) The pronoun same is always used with the definite article. The driver was a young man. . . wearing a dandy cap, drab jacket, breeches of the same hue. (Hardy) this and that are used as subjects, predicatives, objects, and attributes. that (those) may be used as a word substitute: But in thinking of his remaining guest, an expression like that of a cat who is just going to purr stole over his (Swithin’s) old face. (Galsworthy)

Interrogative pronouns • • • are used in inquiry, to form special ques tions. Who refers to human beings What usually refers to things Which has a selective meaning: Who is he? What is he? Which is he? may have different func tions — those of subject, predicative, object, and attribute: Who, do you think, has been to see you, Dad? (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT) “No, who’s he? ” “Oh, he’s a Polish Jew. ” (Aldington) (PREDICA TIVE) “Who do you mean? ” I said. (Du Maurier) ( “What sort of a quarrel? ” he heard Fleur say. (Galsworthy) (AT TRIBUTE)

Relative pronouns • They introduce attributive clauses. The word they refer to is called their antecedent. It may be a noun or a pronoun. • Who is used in reference to human beings or animals. • Whose is mainly used in reference to human beings or animals but it may be applied to things. • Which is used in reference to things and animals. • That is mainly used in reference to animals and things. It may also be used in reference to human beings. • Such as may refer to living beings and things. • His mother was a poor peasant woman, too poor even to think of such a thing as buying skates for her little ones. (Dodge)

Conjunctive pronouns • Introduce subordinate clauses (subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses). • What June had taken for personal interest was only the imper sonal excitement of every Forsyte. . . (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT CLAUSE) • What you want, in fact, is a first rate man for a fourth rate fee, and that’s exactly what you’ve got! (Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE) • I don’t want to hear what you’ve come for. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT CLAUSE) • they perform different functions: subject, predicative, attribute, object. • What had made her yield he could never make out; and from Mrs. Heron, a woman of some diplomatic talent, he learnt noth ing. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT) • Erik realized with a sinking sensation that Haviland didn’t know who he was. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)

The defining pronouns • All is a generalizing pronoun, it takes a group of things or people as a whole. • Both points out two people, things or notions mentioned before. • Each and every refer to all the members of the group of people, things, or notions mentioned before and taken one by one. Each expresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality. Every is half way between each and all. It sees things or people as singular, but in a group or in general. Every artist is sensitive. | Each artist sees things differently. • Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the group of people mentioned before or taken one by one. • Everything may be applied to things, animals and abstract notions. • Either has two meanings: (a) each of the two, (b) one or the other. • Other denotes some object different from the one mentioned before. • Another has two meanings: (1) ‘a different one’, (2) ‘an additional one’.

Indefinite pronouns • Indefinite pronouns point out some person or thing indefinitely. • Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences while any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses. • with nouns of material some and any have the meaning of indefinite quantity • Some is used in special and general questions expressing some request or proposal. • Some may have the meaning of ‘certain’ (некоторые) before a noun in the plural. • You have some queer customers. Do you like this life? (Galswor thy) • Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of ‘every’ (любой). • Above a square domed forehead he saw a mop of brown hair. . . with a wave to it and hints of curls that were a delight to any woman. . . (London)

Someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything • may be used as subject, predicative, or object. • Though they are used with the verb in the singular pronouns they, them, their are often used after them. • Someone has spilt their coffee on the carpet. • The genitive case is used as an attribute: • . . . he could pull his cap down over his eyes and screen himself behind someone’s shoulder. (London) • may be used as prepositional indirect objects. • The girl doesn’t belong to anybody — is no use to anybody but me. (Shaw) • The indefinite personal pronoun one is often used in the sense of any person or every person or in a general sense. • . . . Only one with constitution of iron could have held himself down, as Martin did. (London) • One may be used as a word substitute:

The negative pronouns • • • no is used only before a noun as its at tribute. No Forsyte can stand it for a minute. (Galsworthy) none may be applied both to human beings and things. None of us — none of us can hold on for ever! (Galsworthy) After the combination ‘none of+ a word in the plural’ it is possible to use a verb both in the singular or in the plural. The plural form is more usual. None of the people I met there were English. nobody, no one refer to human beings. After the pronouns nobody, no one the pronouns they, their, them are often used in Modem English. Nobody phoned, did they? nothing refers to things. neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either, both. Similar to these pronouns, it is used when people are talk ing about two things. Neither of them answered; but their faces seemed to him as if contemptuous. (Galsworthy)