Police Technology Chapter Six A Brief History of

Learning Objectives n n Explore the development of police technology against the backgrounds of the policing models – political, professional, and community based models Expand understanding of tactical and strategic information by looking at how technology changed the nature of fingerprint evidence Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Learning Objectives n n Understand the difference between policy and procedure and look at how technology may impact policy and procedure Further explore fragmentation and the market-place. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Introduction Look at history of technology two ways: n What happened and consequences of new technologies n Following a specific piece of information that has been critical to solving crimes for more than one hundred years (fingerprinting) Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Police Technology in Time Most CJ scholars divide the history of American policing into three eras: n Political n Professional n Community Oriented Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Political Policing Era Photograph provided by Cultural Tourism DC. Most police forces established in the late 19 th century consisted or men who had been appointed for limited terms by local Politicians. n Patronage – an officer’s primary source of information came from the people who lived in the community or their beat Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Professional Policing n n n Government and policing evolved out of the patronage system into a civil service system. Prized hierarchy, centralization rules, and standards became the professional policing model. Control of day-to-day operations from politics to professional police managers. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Technology impacting the model Through the 1950 s and 1960 s, the idea that police supervisors and managers should control the production of service began to take hold. n Supervisors and managers began to count the numbers of calls for service an officer handled n Timed how fast he arrived at the scene of a call Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

“You get what you count. . . ” n n n Officer were not walking the community any longer They were evaluated on the number of calls they handled and How fast they got to the call. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Incident Driven Policing n n n Photograph provided by Gary Allen, 9 -1 -1 Dispatch Magazine Through the 1970 s there continued to be a reliance on what was to be seen as incident-driven policing. The advent of the computer made it possible to organize and review this information on incidents and response. The development of 9 -1 -1 only added to the police ability to handle incidents. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Incident Driven Policing n n n As officers judged on the number of calls they handled rose through the ranks, the concept of professionalism increased. police managers did not rely on community input The idea that the police were the professionals who knew best, responded quickly, and handled incidents became organizationally entrenched. Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Incident Driven Policing n n The professional model and the technology changed the relationship between the police and the community This introduced a new problem of the growing distance between police officers and the communities they served. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Community Oriented Policing Founded on two social science theories: n Normative Sponsorship Theory – Most people are good. People will work together if the goal is within the normal standards of the community. n Critical Social Theory – Looks at the way the community comes together to analyze a problem that is preventing the attainment of their goals or needs. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Problem Oriented Policing n n n Shares many of the same characteristics of community-oriented policing. Concentrates on situational crime prevention. Looks at the community of the problem. The Definition of “community” would shift as problems were solved (versus static geographic communities). Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Technology’s Impact on Policing Style Political Model Professional Model Incident Driven Technology Copyright 2005

Changing the Value of Information n The increasing ability to obtain, organize, analyze and recall information has increased its value Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Changing the Value of Information n One of the earliest applications of science to criminal investigation is fingerprint classification. Visible – left by touching a substance before touching a surface (e. g. , blood on a counter) n Latent – hidden fingerprints left behind by the natural oils from our hands. (Best obtained when surface is clean, dry, smooth and nonporous. ) n Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Changing the Value of Information n n At the beginning of the 20 th Century fingerprints were routinely taken from offenders and the cards stored. At this time, for a match each print must be compared against millions of cards Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Changing the Value of Information n At first, systems of classification enable fingerprint specialist to narrow the search from millions of cards to thousands – but still a hand search and analysis The computer enabled the automation of the process. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Automated Fingerprint Identification System n n The process of analyzing fingerprints is dactylography. Software used sophisticated and complex algorithms to recognize and compare minutiae. However; Computer processing speeds were slow Hardware and software to store the information had not yet been developed Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

National Crime Information Center n n n NCIC organized in 1967 by the FBI to handle fingerprints cards and requests for comparison. Began to incorporate criminal histories and correlate them to offender fingerprint cards on file. Medium of transmission was U. S. mail and eventually fax. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Automated Fingerprint Identification System n n n Local agencies forged ahead developing their own applications similar to NCIC creating fragmentation AFIS technology began to be used routinely especially in the investigation of cold cases. 1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and made available nationwide the fingerprints of 33 million criminals. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Automated Fingerprint Identification System Digital scanning – obtains an image on the fingerprint, examines and compares. n Capacitance scanning – uses a charged coupled device (CCD) n Optical Scanning – light source illuminates the suspect’s fingertips Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Automated Fingerprint Identification System Differences are important for two reasons: n Capacitance scanner does not contain the CCD and is more readily miniaturized n Capacitance scanner is actually taking measurements and is not easily fooled. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

NCIC 200 n NCIC 2000 promises to take fingerprint technology into the field Photograph

Policy and Procedure n n Procedures are a set of instructions on how to do something. Policy is a broad statement on how things should be done – how we want human beings to exercise judgment. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Fragmentation The nature of United States Law enforcement has caused policies, procedures and technology to develop different from agency to agency. Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Fragmentation n n 17, 000 state and local law enforcement agencies. Different community expectations and standards Difference equipment acquisitions according to size of budget Expertise develops at different rates Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Fragmentation n Fragmentation – policy, procedure and technology – causes problems whenever agencies must or should work together Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster