Part 1 Foundations of Environmental Science Ch 2

Part 1: Foundations of Environmental Science Ch 2 Environmental Ethics and Economics: Values and Choices 4 th Mtg start (8/28/08) Power. Point® Slides prepared by Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum Modified & re-enforced by M. -H. Kim Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

This lecture will help you understand: • Culture and worldviews • Environmental ethics • Classical and neoclassical economics • Economic growth, economic health, and sustainability • Environmental and ecological economics Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Kakadu National Park, Australia - UNESCO World Heritage Site -

Central Case: The Mirrar Clan Confronts the Jabiluka Uranium Mine in Kakadu National Park • Uranium deposits in Australia often occur on sacred Aboriginal land (>40, 000 yrs) : ~ 7% of the economy of the nation - The Mirrar opposed the mine for cultural, religious, ethical, health, and economic reasons Overruled by the government (1974) aggrevating environmentalists 3000 environmentalists traveled to protest, hundreds jailed (1988) Goldman Award to Leaders (1999) The Cooperate, Rio Tinto, finally yielded. The mine will not be developed unless the Mirrar agree (2004) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Culture and Worldview • Our relationship with the environment depends on assessments of costs and benefits • Culture and worldview also affects this relationship - Culture : knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people - Worldview : a person’s or group’s beliefs about the meaning, purpose, operation, and essence of the world Culture and worldview affect our perception of the environment and environmental problems Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ethics and Economics • Both disciplines deal with what we value • Our values affect our environmental decisions and actions Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Worldviews differ among people • Different worldviews result in different perceptions • Aborigines saw the negative environmental impacts of the Jabiluka mine (i. e. , many radioactive spills problems from Ranger Mine) • Others saw jobs, income, and energy from the mine Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Many factors shape worldviews • Communities/ Societies or Nation Education: Widen the scope • Religions • Political ideology • Economics • Individual interests Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings (Science and others)

Ethics: What is “GOOD” ? • Ethics : the study of good and bad, right and wrong - Relativists : ethics varies with social context (No Absolute standard) - Universalists : right and wrong remains the same across cultures and situations • Ethical standards: criteria that help differentiate right from wrong - Classical standard : Virtues (Aristotle) Truthfulness, Courage, Proper Pride, Modesty, etc. - Categorical Imperative (Kant): ~ The Golden Rule - Utility: something right produces the most benefits for the most people (J. Bentham, J. S. Mill: Utilitarian) → Pragmatism: American Philosophy Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LEVELS of SOCIETIES (from Anthropology): (1) Band Level: Omit 25~50 people, Situational leader Nomadic hunter/gatherers, Little sense of private properties, Egalitarian ethic, “Zen road to affluence” most eco-friendly eg) Bushman (Dobe) in Kalahari: polygyny, (2) Tribal Level: 100’s~1, 000’s , Headmen (some authority) Horticulture (low-intensity farming)/hunting , shamanism eg) Yanomamo in Amazon (3) Chiefdom: Several settlements (1, 000’s ~tens of thousands), Farming/nomadic, Chief (Strong leadership, often inherited) (4) States/Kingdom: ~millions, Centralized authority Farming/Industry, Standing Army & Police, least eco-friendly Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Ethical Standards, Social Norms/Laws varies greatly: Eg. 1) Marriage: Monogamy : a standard in most societies, many societies/cultures allow Polygamy Polygyny Polyandry: in harsh environment with extremely limited resource needing low population growth (Tibet, Nepal, Ladakh* etc) Eg. 2) Rituals: Funerals Cremation , Burials Yanomamo Tribe (in Amazon/Orinoco) Cannibal Tribes in Papua: Sky Burial (Tibet) *”Ancient Future: learning from Ladakh” 1992, Lessons from Ladakh for a Globalizing World by Helena Norberg-Hodge, Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Environmental ethics • Environmental ethics : application of ethical standards to relationships between human and non-human entities - Hard to resolve; depends on the person’s ethical standards - Depends on the person’s domain of ethical concern Should we conserve resources for future generations? Is is OK to destroy a forest to create jobs for people? Should humans drive other species to extinction? Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Is it OK for some communities to be exposed to excess pollution?

We have expanded our ethical consideration • To include animals, communities, nature US(1863) Russia(1861) Britain(1833) Haiti(1804) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Expanding ethical concern • Why have we expanded our ethical concerns? - Economic prosperity: more leisure time, less anxieties - Science: interconnection of all organisms • Non-western cultures often have broader ethical domains • Three perspectives in Western ethics - Anthropocentrism : only humans have rights - Biocentrism : certain living things also have value - Ecocentrism : whole ecological systems have value - Holistic perspective, stresses preserving connections Clouds & Papers: Everything is related/connected. * Thich Nhat Hanh Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Anthropocentrism : only humans have rights Francis Bacon (1561 -1626): English Philosopher, Empiricism Novum Organum (New Instrument), Modern Inductive Method Four Idols: false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. (1)"Idols of the Tribe" (idola tribus), common to the race; Prejudice as Human Beings. (2) “Idols of the Den" (idola specus), peculiar to the individual; (3) "Idols of the Marketplace" (idola fori), coming from the misuse of language; (4) "Idols of the Theatre" (idola theatri), from abuse of authority Biocentrism : certain living things also have value Peter Singer (1946 - ): Contemporary Philosopher Human Bioethics at Princeton: “Animal Liberation”, Provide philosophical basis for Animal Rights Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Western ethical expansion Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

History of environmental ethics • People have long questioned our relationship with the environment • Christianity’s attitude towards the environment - Anthropocentric hostility towards Nature “Be fruitful & multiply, fill the earth & subdue it” (Conquer) - • Benevolent Stewardship over Nature (Tame/Guide) The Industrial Revolution increased consumption and pollution - People no longer appreciated nature - Transcendentalism : nature is a manifestation of the divine R. W. Emerson, H. D. Thoreau (“Walden”) ~ earliest ecocentrist W. Whitman Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The preservation ethic: “Natural environment be kept in pristine/original conditions” • John Muir, 1838 -1914 - an early environmentalists. (Founder of the Sierra Club) - motivated by rapid deforestation & and environmental degradation he witnessed throughout N America. with President Roosevelt at Yosemite National Park, (opened 1872) “Unspoiled nature should be protected for its own inherent value” : an ecocentric viewpoint, Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The conservation ethic: “Use natural resources wisely (sustainably) for the greatest good for the most people” • Gifford Pinchot (1865 -1946) had an anthropocentric viewpoint Founder, US Forest Service (T. Roosevelt Administration) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Land Ethic and the Environmental Philosopher Aldo Leopold (1887 -1949): “Land Ethic” (1949): included the environment to ethical frame work. Human should view themselves and “the land” as members of the same community. Ecocentric - Treat land (soils, waters, plants, animals) in an ethical manner respecting all the fellow members. - Land Ethic changes the role of people from conquerors of the land to citizens of it. “Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all parts of the system” Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Deep Ecology, Ecofeminism, and Justice • Deep ecology: humans are inseparable from nature (integral part) Since all living things have equal value, they should be protected • Ecofeminism: - male-dominated societies have degraded women and the environment through fear and hate, with hierarchies and competition (patriarchal androcentrism) → Feminine worldview: interpret the world in terms of equal interrelationships and cooperation, more in tune with nature • Environmental justice: the fair and equitable treatment of all people regarding environmental issues - Wealthy nations dump hazardous waste in poorer nations with uninformed residents (Cf. Shell in Nigeria, 2009) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Environmental justice (EJ) • The poor and minorities are exposed to more pollution, hazards, and environmental degradation 75% of toxic waste landfills in the southeastern U. S. are in communities with higher racial minorities Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Environmental justice and Native Americans in New Mexico From 1948 to the 1960 s, Navajo miners were not warned of radiation risks of the Uranium mines, nor provided protection by the industry or the U. S. government High incidences of health problems and premature deaths Radiation Exposure and Compensation Act (1990) compensated Navajo miners. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Economics • Economy : a social system that converts resources into - Goods: manufactured materials that are bought to be distributed, - Services: work done for others as a form of business • Types of Economy: 1. Subsistence economy : people get their daily needs directly from nature; they do not purchase or trade (hunters/gatherers, farmers) still practiced in some regions of the world 2. Capitalist market economy : buyers and sellers interact to determine prices and production of goods and services 3. Centrally planned economy : the government determines how to allocate resources 4. Mixed economy : governments intervene to some extent Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Government intervenes in a market economy • Even in capitalist market economies, governments intervene to: - Eliminate unfair advantages held by single buyers/sellers - Provide social services (national defense, medical care, education) - Provide safety nets for elderly, disaster victims, etc. - Manage the commons - Mitigate pollution & other threats to health and quality of life • The Economic Crisis of 2010 Financial Melt down: by Failure of Control of the US Government) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Three Schools of Economics: based on value system • Classical Economics: - Resources (soil, mineral, water, food etc. ) are valuable • Neoclassical Economics - Labor, Human resource have value • Ecological Economics: all above plus - Ecosystem have value Ecosystem Service: Service done naturally by the Ecosystem for economy. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Environmental systems support economies with Ecosystem Service • Ecosystem services: essential services support the life that makes economic activities possible *Soil formation *Pollination *Water purification *Nutrient cycling *Waste treatment Table 2. 2 for more examples • Economic activities affect the environment - Deplete natural resources - Produce too much pollution Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The global value of all ecosystem services • The global economic value of all ecosystem services equals $46 trillion - More than the GDP of all nations combined • Protecting land gives more value than converting it to some other use Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Conventional view of economics • Conventional economics focuses on production and consumption • Ignores the environment • The environment is an external “factor of production” 6/9/09 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Environmental view of economics • Human economies exist within, and depend on, the environment • Without natural resources, there would be no economies 4 th Mtg end (8/28/08), 5 th Mtg end (8/28/08) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Classical economics • Adam Smith, 1723 -1790: “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776) Competition between people free to pursue their own economic self-interest will result in a market place which behaves as if it is guided by an invisible hand that ensures their action will benefit society as a whole. - This idea is a pillar of free-market thought today - It is also blamed for economic inequality: Rich vs. Poor • Critics think that market capitalism should be restricted by government Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Economics (1) What to Produce? (2) How to Produce? → Division of Labor (3) Who get to consume the Products have Values: Adam Smith: “Water Diamond Paradox” Use Value Very Low Very High Exchange Value Diamond Very High Water Very Low ↓ Price How is the price determined ? Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Neoclassical economics • Examines the psychological factors underlying consumer choices • Market prices are explained in terms of consumer preferences • Buyers vs. Sellers Supply: “The higher the price, the more likely manufacturer to produce. Demand: “The lower the price, the consumers more willing to buy more” The “right” quantities of a product are produced at the equilibrium point. The market favors equilibrium between supply and demand. Price Ceilings & Price Floors: Apartment Rent, Price of Farm Products Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Neoclassical economics • Enormous wealth and jobs are generated - Environmental problems are also created • Assumptions of neoclassical economics: - Resources are infinite or substitutable - Costs and benefits are internal - Long-term effects are discounted - Growth is good Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Is the growth paradigm good for us? • “More and bigger is better” NO in the long run The dramatic rise in per-person consumption has severe environmental consequences Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A steady state economy • As resources became harder to find, economic growth slows and stabilizes (John Stuart Mill, 1806 -1873) - We must rethink our assumptions - Many other traditional societies in the world the aborigines and nomads. • Economies are measured in various ways - Gross Domestic Product (GDP): total monetary value of final goods and services produced - Does not account for nonmarket values Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

GPI: An alternative to the GDP • Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI): differentiates between desirable and undesirable economic activity - Positive contributions (i. e. volunteer work) not paid for with money are added to economic activity - Negative impacts (crime, pollution) are subtracted In the U. S. , GDP has risen greatly, but not GPI Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

GPI: An alternative to the GDP • Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI): differentiates between desirable and undesirable economic activity - Positive contributions (i. e. volunteer work) not paid for with money are added to economic activity - Negative impacts (crime, pollution) are subtracted In the U. S. , GDP has risen greatly, but not GPI Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Computer simulations project future trends Current consumption patterns predict economic collapse Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Results of policies of sustainability

Gross National Happiness (GNH) Indicator 1972 by Bhutan's King Jigme Singye Wangchuck (Give up kingdom) • The concept of gross national happiness (GNH) was developed in an attempt to define an indicator that measures quality of life or social progress in more holistic and psychological terms than gross national product or GDP. • The Bhutanese grounding in Buddhist ideals suggests that beneficial development of human society takes place when material and spiritual development occur side by side to complement each other. The four pillars of GNH are the promotion of sustainable development, preservation/promotion of cultural values, conservation of the natural environment, and establishment of good governance. Other Indices: Quality of Life Index, Happy Planet Index World Happiness Index, Global Happiness Index, Relative Happiness Index, Australian Happiness Index , Happiness Scale, World Values Survey Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Quality of Life Index(QOLI) • Health/Life Expectancy • Family Life • Community Life • Material Well-being • Political Stability/Security • Climate • Geography • Job Security • Freedom & Social Justices • Gender Equality Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Is GDP is directly involved?

Happy Planet Index(HPI) – the most holistic index • an index of human well-being and environmental impact - introduced by the New Economics Foundation (NEF) in July 2006. • How each nation can make “Gaia” Happy/Healthy promoting sustainability? -grasping planet as an organism. • HPI ~ QOLI/per capita Ecological Foot Print(EFP) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

GDP 2010 ($62 T) QOLI (2005) HPI (2009) • 1 US ($15 T) Ireland(8. 3) Costa Rica(76) • 2 China(5. 7) Swiss Dominic. R. (72) • 3 Japan(5. 4) Norway(8. 1) Jamaica(70) • 4 Germ. (3. 3) Luxem. (8. 0) Guatemala(68) • 5 France(2. 6) Sweden(7. 9) *Vietnam(67) • 6 UK (2. 3) *Austral. (7. 9) Columbia(66) • 7 Italy (2. 0) Iceland(7. 9) Cuba (66) • 8 Brazil(2. 0) Italy El Salva. (62) 17 Bhutan (59) • 9 Canada(1. 6) Denmark(7. 8) Brazil(61) 20 China (57) • 10 Russia(1. 5) Spain Honduras(61) 75 Japan(43) • 11 India(1. 4) *Singap. (7. 7) Nicaragua (61) • 12 Spain(1. 4) Finland(7. 6) * Egypt(60) (8. 1) (7. 8) (7. 7) 114 US (31) 196 Countries W. Europe • Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings C. & L. Am. 193 in UN Kosovo, Taiwan, Vatican

Valuing ecosystems goods and services • Our society mistreats the very systems that sustain it - The market ignores/undervalues ecosystem values • Nonmarket values : values not included in the price of a good or service • The global value of all ecosystem services ~ $42 trillion! (an underestimation) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Conclusion • Recent developments have brought economic approaches to bear on environmental protection and conservation • Environmental ethics has expanded people’s ethical considerations • Economic welfare can be enhanced without growth, resulting in economic health and environmental quality Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review An ecocentric worldview would consider the impact of an action on… ? a) Humans only b) Animals only c) Plants only d) All living things e) All nonliving things Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review Which ethic holds that healthy ecosystems depend on the protection of all their parts? a) Preservation ethic b) Land ethic c) Conservation ethic d) Deep ecology e) Biocentrism Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review Which of the following is an ecosystem service? a) Water purification in wetlands b) Climate regulation in the atmosphere c) Nutrient cycling in ecosystems d) Waste treatment by bacteria e) All of the above Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review Which is NOT an assumption of neoclassical economics that can lead to environmental degradation? a) Resources are limited b) Long-term effects are downplayed c) All costs and benefits are experienced by the buyer and seller alone d) Growth is good Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review Which of the following statements would be spoken by an ecological economist? a) The current economic system is working fine b) The current economic system simply needs to be finetuned c) The current economic system is broken and a new one needs to be developed d) Economic systems never work Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data Market equilibrium, which sets the price of a product, is reached … a) When supply exceeds demand b) When demand exceeds supply c) By demand when quantity is low, and supply when quantity is high d) When supply equals demand Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data Which conclusion can you draw from this graph? a) GDP has not really increased since 1950 b) Although we are spending more money, our lives are not much better c) We are spending less money, and our lives are much better d) The GPI is not as accurate as GDP Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Viewpoints Think of an issue in your community that could pit environmentalists against economic development. What do you think should prevail: environmental protection or economic development? a) Economic growth; we need the jobs b) Environmental protection; we need the environment c) Both; a compromise must be reached d) Whatever costs the taxpayers the least Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Viewpoints What entities do you include in your domain of ethical concern? a) b) c) d) Humans only Humans and pets Humans, pets, and other animals Humans, pets, other animals, and nature Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings