О ИКА Н Т З А ГЛ Н А Ь Л ПО Е Т ІУ И Ч АР. В М. . К 6 М 2 Е № Т С ОШ О З Р М А Р Г П ІД ГО Т У В А Л А ІЙ С Ь К О Ї М О В И
ПІДГОТОВКА ДО ЗНО(ГРАМАТИКА) ДЛЯ ВИКОРИСТАННЯ У ДИСТАНЦІЙНОМУ НАВЧАННІ Цей курс було створено з метою підвищення мотивації до поглибленого вивчання англійської мови та спрощення пошуку інформації для підготовки до іспиту. Сподіваюсь, що ця програма стане Вам у нагоді в цьому нелегкому шляху опанування англійської мови та допоможе отримати високі бали в кінці іспиту. Дякую за увагу.
NOUNS ARE PEOPLE, PLACES, OR THINGS, THEY TELL US WHAT WE ARE TALKING ABOUT. THE WORDSCAT, JACK, ROCK, AFRICA, & IT ARE NOUNS. SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS REGULAR NOUNS Most singular nouns form the plural by adding -s. Singular Plural boats houses cats rivers
A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh makes the plural by adding-es. Singular Plural buses wishes pitches boxes
A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-ies. Singular Plural penny pennies spy spies baby babies city cities daisy daisies
IRREGULAR NOUNS There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below. Singular Plural woman women man men children tooth teeth foot feet person people leaf leaves mouse mice goose geese
half halves knife knives wife wives life lives elf elves loaf loaves potatoes tomatoes cactus cacti focus foci fungus fungi
nucleus nuclei syllabus syllabi/syllabuses analysis analyses diagnosis diagnoses oasis oases thesis theses crisis crises phenomenon phenomena criterion criteria datum data
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural. Singular Plural sheep fish deer species aircraft
IRREGULAR VERB/NOUN AGREEMENT Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb. Plural nouns used with a singular verb Sentence news The news is at 6. 30 p. m. athletics Athletics is good for young people. linguistics Linguistics is the study of language. darts Darts is a popular game in England. billiards Billiards is played all over the world.
Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or they have a different meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings, thanks, steps, stairs, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits Plural noun with plural verb Sentence trousers My trousers are too tight. jeans Her jeans are black. glasses Those glasses are his.
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an". If you want to ask about the quantity of a countable noun, you ask "How many? " combined with the plural countable noun. Singular Plural one dog two dogs one horse two horses one man two men one idea two ideas one shop two shops
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count with numbers. They may be the names for abstract ideas or qualities or for physical objects that are too small or too amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc. ). Uncountable nouns are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. anger fear love money research safety evidence tea sugar water air rice knowledge beauty
TRICKY SPOTS Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. They must follow the rules for uncountable nouns. The most common ones are: accommodation, advice, baggage, behavior, bread, furniture, information, luggage, news, progress, traffic, travel, trouble, weather, work I would like to give you some advice. How much bread should I bring? I didn't make much progress today. This looks like a lot of trouble to me. We did an hour of work yesterday.
Be careful with the noun hair which is normally uncountable in English, so it is not used in the plural. It can be countable only when referring to individual hairs. She has long blond hair. The child's hair was curly. I washed my hair yesterday. My father is getting a few grey hairs now. (refers to individual hairs) I found a hair in my soup! (refers to a single strand of hair)
COMPOUND NOUNS Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. The second part identifies the object or person in question. Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different, or more specific, than the two separate words. First part: type or purpose Second part: what or who Compound noun police man policeman boy friend boyfriend fish tank water tank dining table dining-table
The elements in a compound noun are very diverse parts of speech. Compound elements Examples noun + noun bedroom water tank motorcycle printer cartridge noun + verb rainfall haircut train-spotting noun + adverb hanger-on passer-by verb + noun washing machine driving licence swimming pool verb + adverb lookout take-off drawback
adverb + noun onlooker bystander adjective + verb dry-cleaning public speaking adjective + noun greenhouse software redhead adverb + verb output overthrow upturn input
PRONOUNCIATION Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun and an adjective with a noun. In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable. a 'greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun) a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun) a 'bluebird = type of bird (compound noun) a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun)
CAPITALISATION RULES Capital letters are used with particular types of nouns, in certain positions in sentences, and with some adjectives. You must always use capital letters for: The beginning of a sentence EXAMPLES Dogs are noisy. Children are noisy too.
The first personal pronoun, I EXAMPLES Yesterday, I went to the park. He isn't like I am.
Names and titles of people EXAMPLES Winston Churchill Marilyn Monroe the Queen of England the President of the United States the Headmaster of Eton Doctor Mathews Professor Samuels
Titles of works, books, movies EXAMPLES War and Peace The Merchant of Venice Crime and Punishment Spider Man II
Months of the year EXAMPLES January July February August
Days of the week EXAMPLES Monday Friday Tuesday Saturday
Seasons EXAMPLES Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Holidays EXAMPLES Christmas Easter New Year's Day Thanksgiving Day
Names of countries and continents EXAMPLES America England Scotland China
Names of regions, states, districts EXAMPLES Sussex California Provence Tuscany
Names of cities, towns, villages EXAMPLES London Cape Town Florence Vancouver
Names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes EXAMPLES the Atlantic the Pacific Lake Victoria the Rhine the Thames
Names of geographical formations EXAMPLES the Himalayas the Alps the Sahara
Adjectives relating to nationality EXAMPLES French music Australian animals German literature Arabic writing
Collective nouns for nationalities EXAMPLES the French the Germans the Americans the Chinese
Language names EXAMPLES I speak Chinese. He understands English.
Names of streets, buildings, parks EXAMPLES Park Lane Sydney Opera House Central Park the Empire State Building Wall Street
NATIONALITIES Forming nationality adjectives and nouns from country names is not always simple in English. Use the nationality adjective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people of that nationality. The adjective listed also often refers to the language spoken in the country, although this is not always the case. EXAMPLES Country: I live in Japan. Adjective: He likes Japanese food. Origins: She is a Japanese person. = She is from Japan. = She is Japanese. Language: She speaks Japanese. Describing a group: Spaniards often drink wine. = Spanish people often drink wine. Describing a group: The Chinese enjoy fireworks. = Chinese people enjoy fireworks.
Geographic Region/Continent Adjective Noun African an African* (an African person, someone from Africa) Asian an Asian* (an Asian person, someone from Asia) European a European Central American a Central American Middle Eastern a Middle Easterner North African a North African South American a South American Southeast Asian a Southeast Asian person
Country or region Adjective Noun Afghanistan Afghan Algerian an Algerian Angolan Argentina Argentine an Argentine Austrian an Austrian Australian Bangladeshi a Bangladeshi Belarusian a Belarusian Belgium Belgian a Belgian Bolivian a Bolivian
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian/Herzegovinian a Bosnian/a Herzegovinian Brazilian a Brazilian Britain British a Briton (informally: a Brit) Bulgarian a Bulgarian Cambodian a Cambodian Cameroonian a Cameroonian Canada Canadian Central African Republic Central African a Central African Chadian a Chadian China Chinese person Colombian a Colombian Costa Rican a Costa Rican Croatian a Croat
the Czech Republic Czech a Czech person Democratic Republic of the Congolese a Congolese person (note: this refers to people from the Republic of the Congo as well) Denmark Danish a Dane Ecuadorian an Ecuadorian Egyptian El Salvadoran a Salvadoran (also accepted are Salvadorian & Salvadorean) England English an Englishman/Englishwoman Estonian Ethiopian an Ethiopian Finland Finnish a Finn France French a Frenchman/Frenchwoman Germany German a German Ghanaian a Ghanaian
Greece Greek a Greek Guatemalan a Guatemalan Holland Dutch a Dutchman/Dutchwoman Honduras Honduran a Honduran Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian Icelandic an Icelander Indian an Indian Indonesian Iranian an Iranian Iraqi Ireland Irish an Irishman/Irishwoman Israeli Italy Italian an Italian Ivory Coast Ivorian an Ivorian
Jamaican Japanese a Japanese person Jordanian a Jordanian Kazakhstan Kazakh a Kazakhstani (used as a noun, "a Kazakh" refers to an ethnic group, not a nationality) Kenyan a Kenyan Laos Lao a Laotian (used as a noun, "a Lao" refers to an ethnic group, not a nationality) Latvian a Latvian Libyan a Libyan Lithuanian a Lithuanian Madagascar Malagasy a Malagasy Malaysian a Malaysian Malian a Malian Mauritanian a Mauritanian
Mexico Mexican a Mexican* (may be offensive in the USA. Use "someone from Mexico" instead. ) Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan Namibian a Namibian New Zealand a New Zealander Nicaraguan a Nicaraguan Nigerien a Nigerien Nigerian a Nigerian Norway Norwegian a Norwegian Omani Pakistani a Pakistani* (may be offensive in the UK. Use "someone from Pakistan" instead. ) Panamanian a Panamanian Paraguayan a Paraguayan Peruvian a Peruvian
The Philippines Philippine a Filipino* (someone from the Philippines) Poland Polish a Pole* (someone from Poland, a Polish person) Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese person Republic of the Congolese a Congolese person (note: this refers to people from the Democratic Republic of the Congo as well) Romanian a Romanian Russian a Russian Saudi Arabia Saudi, Saudi Arabian a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian Scotland Scottish a Scot Senegalese a Senegalese person Serbian a Serbian (used as a noun, "a Serb" refers to an ethnic group, not a nationality Singaporean a Singaporean Slovakia Slovak Somalian South African Spain Spanish a Spaniard* (a Spanish person, someone from Spain)
Sudanese a Sudanese person Sweden Swedish a Swede Switzerland Swiss a Swiss person Syrian a Syrian Thailand Thai a Thai person Tunisian a Tunisian Turkey Turkish a Turkmenistan Turkmen a Turkmen / the Turkmens Ukraine Ukranian a Ukranian The United Arab Emirates Emirati an Emirati The United States American an American Uruguayan a Uruguayan Vietnamese a Vietnamese person Wales Welsh a Welshman/Welshwoman Zambian a Zambian Zimbabwean a Zimbabwean
Cities also can be transformed into adjectives and nouns, although they are highly irregular and the nominal form is not always agreed upon (there may be several). Some examples of transformed city names are below. City Adjective Noun Parisian a Parisian New York a New Yorker Sydney a Sydney-sider London a Londoner São Paulo a Paulistano New Delhi a Delhiite Cape Town a Capetonian
THE POSSESSIVE The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. It shows a relationship of belonging between one thing and another. To form the possessive, add apostrophe + s to the noun. If the noun is plural, or already ends in s, just add an apostrophe after the s. EXAMPLES the car of John = John's car the room of the girls = the girls' room clothes for men = men's clothes the boat of the sailors = the sailors' boat
For names ending in s, you can either add an apostrophe + s, or just an apostrophe. The first option is more common. When pronouncing a possessive name, we add the sound /z/ to the end of the name. EXAMPLES Thomas's book (or Thomas' book) James's shop (or James' shop) the Smiths's house (or the Smiths' house)
FUNCTIONS OF THE POSSESSIVE 'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is the most common relationship the possessive expresses. EXAMPLES John owns a car. = It is John's car. America has some gold reserves. = They are America's gold reserves.
The possessive can also express where someone works, studies or spends time EXAMPLES John goes to this school. = This is John's school. John sleeps in this room. = This is John's room.
The possessive can express a relationship between people. EXAMPLES John's mother is running late. Mrs Brown's colleague will not be coming to the meeting.
The possessive can express intangible things as well. EXAMPLES John's patience is running out. The politician's hypocrisy was deeply shocking.
FIXED EXPRESSIONS There also some fixed expressions where the possessive form is used. EXAMPLES WITH TIME a day's work a month's pay today's newspaper in a year's time OTHER EXAMPLES For God's sake! (= exclamation of exasperation) a stone's throw away (= very near) at death's door (= very ill) in my mind's eye (= in my imagination)
The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job title of the owner. EXAMPLES Shall we go to Luigi's for lunch? I've got an appointment at the dentist's at eleven o'clock. Is Saint Mary's an all-girls school?
ADJECTIVES MODIFY, OR DESCRIBE, NOUNS. THE WORDS TALL, BEAUTIFUL, IRRESPONSIBLE, & BORINGARE ADJECTIVES. Adjectives describe the aspects of nouns. When an adjective is describing a noun, we say it is "modifying" it. Adjectives can: Describe feelings or qualities EXAMPLES He is a lonely man. They are honest. Give nationality or origin EXAMPLES I heard a French song. This clock is German. Our house is Victorian.
Tell more about a thing's characteristics EXAMPLES That is a flashy car. The knife is sharp. Tell us about age EXAMPLES He's a young man. My coat is old.
Tell us about size and measurement EXAMPLES John is a tall man. This film is long. Tell us about colour EXAMPLES Paul wore a red shirt. The sunset was crimson. Tell us what something is made of EXAMPLES The table is wooden. She wore a cotton dress.
Tell us about shape EXAMPLES I sat at a round table. The envelope is square. Express a judgement or a value EXAMPLES That was a fantastic film. Grammar is complicated.
USING ADJECTIVES IN ENGLISH Adjectives in English are invariable. They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun. EXAMPLES This is a hot potato. Those are some hot potatoes. To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective, use the adverbs very or really in front of the adjective you want to strengthen. EXAMPLES This is a very hot potato Those are some really hot potatoes.
Adjectives in English usually appear in front of the noun that they modify. EXAMPLES The beautiful girl ignored me. The fast red car drove away. Adjectives can also appear after being and sensing verbs like to be, to seem , to look & to taste. EXAMPLES Italy is beautiful. I don't think she seems nice at all. You look tired. This meat tastes funny.
SOME EXCEPTIONS Adjectives appear after the noun in some fixed expressions. EXAMPLES The Princess Royal is visiting Oxford today. The President elect made a speech last night. He received a court martial the following week. The adjectives involved, present & concerned can appear either before or after the noun that they modify, but with a different meaning depending on the placement. Adjective placed after the noun Meaning Adjective placed before the noun Meaning I want to see the peopleinvolved. I want to see the people who have something to do with this matter. It was an involveddiscussi on. The discussion was detailed & complex. Here is a list of the peoplepresent at the meeting. Here is a list of the people who were at the meeting. The present situatio The current n is not sustainable. situation is not sustainable. I need to see the man concernedby this accusation. I need to see the man who has been accused. A concerned father came to see me today. A worried father came to see me today.
ORDERING MULTIPLE ADJECTIVES When a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The usual order is: Quantity, Value/opinion, Size, Temperature, Age, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material What the adjective expresses Examples Quantity four, ten, a few, several Value/Opinion delicious, charming, beautiful Size tall, tiny, huge Temperature hot, cold Age old, young, new, 14 -year-old Shape square, round Color red, purple, green Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese Material glass, silver, wooden
EXAMPLES They have a lovely old red post-box. The playroom has six small round plastic tables. I bought some charming Victorian silver ornaments at the flea market. She is selling her flashy 3 -year-old Italiancar. It was a beautiful cold day.
THE COMPARATIVE AND THE SUPERLATIVE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they modify (larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences where two nouns are compared, in this pattern: Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object). The second item of comparison can be omitted if it is clear from the context (final example below). EXAMPLES My house is larger than hers. This box is smaller than the one I lost. Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog. The rock flew higher than the roof. Jim and Jack are both my friends, but I like Jack better. ("than Jim" is understood)
SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a quality (the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest). They are used in sentences where a subject is compared to a group of objects. Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object). The group that is being compared with can be omitted if it is clear from the context (final example below). EXAMPLES My house is the largest one in our neighborhood. This is the smallest box I've ever seen. Your dog ran the fastest of any dog in the race. We all threw our rocks at the same time. My rock flew the highest. ("of all the rocks" is understood)
FORMING REGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES Forming comparatives and superlatives is easy. The form depends on the number of syllables in the original adjective. ONE SYLLABLE ADJECTIVES Add -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative. If the adjective has a consonant + single vowel + consonant spelling, the final consonant must be doubled before adding the ending. Adjective Comparative Superlative taller tallest fatter fattest bigger biggest sadder saddest
TWO SYLLABLES Adjectives with two syllables can form the comparative either by adding -er or by preceeding the adjective with more. These adjectives form the superlative either by adding -est or by preceeding the adjective with most. In many cases, both forms are used, although one usage will be more common than the other. If you are not sure whether a two-syllable adjective can take a comparative or superlative ending, play it safe and use moreand most instead. For adjectives ending in y, change the y to an i before adding the ending. Adjective Comparative Superlative happy happier happiest simpler simplest busy busier busiest tilted more tilted most tilted tangled more tangled most tangled
THREE OR MORE SYLLABLES Adjectives with three or more syllables form the comparative by putting more in front of the adjective, and the superlative by putting most in front. Adjective Comparative Superlative important more important most important expensive more expensive most expensive
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES These very common adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms. Adjective Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst little less least much more most far further / farther furthest / farthest EXAMPLES • Today is the worst day I've had in a long time. • You play tennis better than I do. • This is the least expensive sweater in the store. • This sweater is less expensive than that one. • I ran pretty far yesterday, but I ran even farther today.
COMPARING ATTRIBUTES When comparing the attributes of two things, we use a standard set of constructions. WHEN ATTRIBUTES ARE EQUAL Comparing equal attributes is simple. To compare the attributes of two things that are equal, we use the pattern: as + adjective describing the attribute + as EXAMPLES Tom is as tall as his brother. I am as hungry as you are. Sally is as nice as Jane.
WHEN ATTRIBUTES ARE NOT EQUAL When the two attributes are not equal, there are three constructions with equivalent meanings. Either use the pattern: not as + adjective describing the attribute + as Or use the pattern: less + adjective describing the attribute + than : This construction is more frequent with some adjectives than with others. Or use the pattern: comparative adjective + than : This construction may require changing the order of the phrase or using the opposing adjective. EXAMPLES Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest. Mont Blanc is less high than Mount Everest. Mont Blanc is lower than Mount Everest is higher than Mont Blanc. Norway is not as sunny as Thailand. Norway is less sunny than Thailand is sunnier than Norway is cloudier than Thailand.
ADJECTIVES COMPARING EQUAL QUANTITIES To compare two things that are equal, we use the pattern: as + adjective indicating quantity + (noun) + as The quantity adjective you use depends if the noun in the comparison is countable or uncountable. COUNTABLE NOUNS Use as many and as few with countable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is understood from the context, as in the last example below. EXAMPLES They have as many children as we do. We have as many customers as they do. Tom has as few books as Jane. There as few houses in his village as in mine. You know as many people as I do.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Use as much or as little with uncountable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is understood from the context, as in the last example below. EXAMPLES John eats as much food as Peter. Jim has as little patience as Sam. You've heard as much news as I have. He's had as much success as his brother has. They've got as little water as we have. I'm not hungry. I've had as much as I want. ("food" is understood)
ADJECTIVES COMPARING UNEQUAL QUANTITIES To compare two things that are unequal, we use the pattern: adjective indicating quantity + (noun) + than The quantity adjective you use depends if the noun in the comparison is countable or uncountable. COUNTABLE NOUNS Use more and fewer with countable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is understood from the context, as in the last example below. EXAMPLES They have more children than we do. We have more customers than they do. Tom has fewer books than Jane. There are fewer houses in his village than in mine. You know more people than I do.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Use more or less with uncountable nouns. Note that the noun may be omitted when it is understood from the context, as in the last example below. EXAMPLES John eats more food than Peter. Jim has less patience than Sam. You've heard more news than I have. He's had more success than his brother has. They've got less water than we have. I'm not hungry at all. I've had more than I want. ("food" is understood)
