Скачать презентацию Notional Parts of Speech Meet the VERB Lecture
Lecture 8.ppt
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Скачать презентацию Notional Parts of Speech Meet the VERB Lecture
Скачать презентацию Notional Parts of Speech Meet the VERB Lecture
Notional Parts of Speech: Meet the VERB Lecture 8
Plan: § 1. General Characteristics of the Verb. § 2. Classification of the Verb. § 3. Morphological Categories of the Verb: § 3. 1. Person and Number. § 3. 2. Tense. § 3. 3. Temporal (Retrospective) Coordination. § 3. 4. Aspect. § 3. 5. Voice. § 3. 6. Mood.
Category of Tense (1) TIME is the form of existence of matter; it is independent of human perception and is constantly changing. past present future TENSE (from Latin “tempus” – “time”) is the grammatical expression of verbal time through morphological forms of the verbs. Differences in lexical and grammatical means of time expression (by B. S. Khaimovich and B. I. Rogovskaya): n Lexically, it is possible to name any definite moment or period of time (e. g. a millennium, a century, a year, …, a second). Grammatically tense is an abstraction from only 3 times – the present, the past and the future. n Lexically, a period of time is named directly (e. g. : on Monday). The grammatical indication of time is extremely generalized. n The lexical meaning of the time is absolute while the grammatical meaning is relative. E. g. : ‘goes’ – a present action vs. ‘ went’ – a past action.
Category of Tense (2) TRADITIONAL APPROACH is based on the philosophical concept of time perceived as developing in a linear way: 3 tenses –Past, Present and Future (lived – lives – will live). Past Some scholars deny the grammatical form of the future: • O. Jersperson: shall/will+Inf. is not a grammatical (analytical) form of the future since the first element in this combination is not devoid of lexical meaning; • Future-in-the-Past form expresses the future time and the past time at once which is nonsense from oppositional viewpoint; • only present and past forms use the auxiliary verb ‘do’ to form interrogatory and negative constructions. 3 traditional tenses show the time of the action from the point of view of the moment of speech – the absolute use of tenses The relative use of tenses –the time of the action is referred to another moment in the past or future. Tense-forms express priority, simultaneity, or relative future (the sequence of tenses).
Category of Tense (3) M. Y. BLOKH’S APPROACH: there are two interconnected tense categories – the primary time and the prospective time. Primary time (“absolutive time”, “retrospective time”) – primary tenses refer the action to the moment of speech. Opposition: Present (-) vs. Past (+) Meanings: Markers: • actions taking place at the moment of speech (What are you doing? ); • repeated actions (We go out every Friday night); • universal truths (Two plus two makes four); • instantaneous actions (Smith passes to Brown) • productive: suffix -ed. • non-productive: 1) sound interchange (choose – chose, run – ran); 2) suppletion (be – was/were, go – went). SEE EXAMPLES OF REDUCTION
Category of Tense (4) Oppositional Neutralization: “Historic present” (“preterite present”) I stopped to greet him and what do you think he does? He pretends he doesn’t know me! – the present tense-form is used to describe past events to create a vivid picture of the past (stylistic colouring). Oppositional Transposition: “Attitudinal past” (“preterite of modesty”) Could you help me, please? – the past tense-form is used to express various degrees of politeness.
Category of Tense (5) Prospective time (“relative time”) – the future action is relative to either the present or the past time. Present // Past Opposition: Non-Future (-) Meaning: non-after-action to the present / past SEE EXAMPLES OF REDUCTION vs. Future (+) Meaning: after-action to present / past Markers: • shall/will correlating with present (He will go) • should/would correlating with past (He said he would go) – for sequence of tenses.
Category of Tense (6) Oppositional Neutralization: We go to London tomorrow. – the present tense-form is used to denote future actions planned, arranged or anticipated in the near future. If you stay, you will learn a lot of interesting things about yourself. (in subordinate clauses of time and condition). Oppositional Transposition: When he needs something, he will talk about it for days on end. – the future tense-form is used to express insistence. CONCLUSION: Logically one and the same category CANNOT be expressed TWICE in one and the same form. Existence of a specific future-in-the-past form shows that the tense category in English as a twolevel opposition.
Category of Temporal Coordination (1) TEMPORAL COORDINATION is the morphological category of the verb expressing priority of the action to a certain moment and correlating the action with that moment. Interpretations of perfect forms in English: 1) Perfect is a tense-form (H. Sweet, O. Jesperson); 2) Perfect is an aspect form (G. N. Vorontsova, R. Quirk); 3) Perfect is a part of the tense-aspect system (V. N. Zhigadlo, I. P. Ivanova, L. L. Iofik); 4) Perfect is a specific form of its own category. A. I. Smirnitsky: Perfect is neither a tense category, nor an aspect category but – “the category of time correlation”. Main argument: perfect continuous form – the combination is logically impossible within the same category. M. Y. Blokh: “the category of retrospective coordination” – it is semantically intermediate between aspect and tense.
Category of Temporal Coordination (2) OPPOSITIONAL APPROACH: Non-Pefect (-) vs. Perfect (+) Marker: Have + Participle II I have done this work CASES OF REDUCTION Oppositional Neutralization: !! particularly active in American English 1) Sorry, I left my book at home. – the non-perfect form is used due to the limitive character of the verb. 2) Sorry, I forget your name. – colloquial neutralization with verbs of physical and mental perception. Oppositional Transposition: He has never loved anyone like this before. – the perfect form is used with an unlimitive verb turned into “limitive for the nonce” (в конкретном случае).
Category of Aspect (1) ASPECT is a verbal grammatical category showing the way in which the action develops, i. e. from the point of view of its progress (as a process) and completion (as a result). Interpretations of continuous forms in English: 1) Aspect is a semantic category (G. Curme); SEE MORE 2) NO Aspect in Modern English (H. Sweet, O. Jesperson); Cf. Russian: видеть – увидеть, бежать – прибежать, кричать – выкрикнуть – the aspect is a purely lexical category of the verb. English: most verbs migrate easily from the subclass of unlimitive verbs to the subclass of limitive ones. 1) Aspect is a part of the tense-aspect system (V. N. Zhigadlo, I. P. Ivanova, L. L. Iofik); 2) Aspect is a separate grammatical category. GO ON
Category of Aspect (2) ASPECT as seen by G. CURME: v The durative aspect – the action as continuing: Mother is baking a cake now. v The ingressive aspect – the initial stage of the action: She began crying loudly. v The effective aspect – the final point of the action: We stopped talking. v The terminative aspect – an action as a whole: She read about the murder in the paper. v The iterative aspect – a succession of acts: When we were children, we would go skating every week. BACK
Category of Aspect (3) 4 traditional aspects in English: v Perfect – presents an action as the result achieved by a certain moment in the Present, Past or Future (He has come / He had come / He will have come). v Continuous – presents an action in the process of its performance at a certain moment in the Present, Past or Future (He is coming / He has been coming / He will be coming). NB! Verbs not used in this aspect: of perception (see, hear), of mental activity (know, believe, recognize), of wish (want, desire), of abstract relations (have, belong, depend). v Perfect Continuous – describes the period of duration of an action which is indicated either by an adverbial modifier (He has been coming for 2 hours) or by a temporal clause. v Indefinite (Simple) – has the zero meaning of the aspect & has no special auxiliary describing the manner of this action.
Category of Aspect (4) OPPOSITIONAL APPROACH: Non-Continuous (-) vs. (Simple / Indefinite) Meaning: mere fact of the performance of the action Continuous (+) (Progressive) Meaning: an action in progress, developing at a given moment Markers: Be + Participle I (-ing) I am reading the book CASES OF REDUCTION Oppositional Neutralization: 1) I have a problem; I love you. – unlimitive statal verbs denote developing processes by their own meaning. 2) He stood there staring at me. Cf. He was standing there staring…. Oppositional Transposition: You are constantly grumbling! – stylistic coloring of habitual, repeated actions in continuous forms.
Category of Voice (1) VOICE is a morphological category of the verb which shows the direction of the process between the participants of the situation. Voice is a very specific verbal category: it is expressed morphologically & is realized in a syntactic unit – a sentence. OPPOSITIONAL APPROACH: Active (-) vs. Meaning: an action performed by the subject of the syntactic construction A stranger was following me. Passive (+) Meaning: an action received or a state experienced by the subject of the syntactic construction Markers: Be + Participle II I was followed by a stranger. Also used when the agent is unknown or irrelevant: The cup has been broken.
Category of Voice (2) ADDITIONAL THINKING OVER VOICE 4 possible directions of the action: v from the subject (Active Voice); TRUE Voice v to the subject (Passive Voice); VOICES Voice v from the subject and back to it (? Reflexive Voice? ); v between the elements of the subject (? Reciprocal Voice? ). “MEDIAL VOICES”: Reflexive Voice: I will shave (= myself) in no time. I will Voice wash in no time. Reciprocal Voice: Nelly & Chris divorced 2 years ago. The friends will be meeting (= one another, each other) tomorrow morning. + Middle Voice: The door opened. The book reads easily. Voice (NEUTRALIZATION) The book sells like hot cakes.
Category of Voice (3) Reasons for extensive use of passive forms in English (as compared to Russian): 1) Eng: no means of avoiding the doer of the action in active constructions. Rus: several grammatical means that serve the purpose: (a) indefinite personal sentences with no subject and the predicate is in the 3 d person Pl. : Греков держали как пленников, но при этом обращались с ними почтительно. (b) sentences with reflexive verbs: Он знал, что оставался еще один важный вопрос. (c) impersonal sentences: Все небо обложило тучами. ≈ Eng: One has to think twice about accepting invitations. They say that the weather is better in May. People say he has left the country. The use of such constructions is restricted, and English, instead, resorts to passive constructions.
Category of Voice (4) Reasons for extensive use of passive forms in English (as compared to Russian): 2) Eng: a great number of transitive verbs taking a direct object, therefore the extensive use of the Direct Passive: The book was given to him. Rus: the number of transitive verbs is limited. 3) Eng: a great variety of passive constructions with complementive objective verbs: n Indirect Passive (the subject corresponds to the indirect object of the active construction): He was given a book. n Prepositional Passive (the subject corresponds to the prepositional object of the active construction): She is always looked at by men. n Adverbial Passive (the subject corresponds to the adverbial modifier of the active construction): The bed was not slept in. The house hasn’t been lived in for years.
Category of Mood (1) MOOD is a verbal grammatical category showing the relation between the action and reality as represented by the speaker. Means of expressing the speaker’s attitude (MOOD): ü Phonetic – intonation patterns; ü Lexical –modal verbs (can, must)& modal words (perhaps); ü Grammatical – forms of predicate-verbs. No universally accepted classification of moods: the number moods varies from as many as 16 (M. Deutschbein) to 2 (M. Y. Blokh). Some linguists recognize no mood at all (L. S. Barkhudarov). Major difficulties of mood classification: n same forms – different meanings; n same meaning – different forms. 2 Principles for classifications of mood: 1) form & 2) meaning.
Category of Mood (2) TRADITIONAL APPROACH: v The Indicative Mood shows that the speaker represents the action as an actual real fact: I go there every day. This mood is universally recognized. v The Imperative Mood is used to express the modal meaning of urge. Formally coincides with the infinitive. Negative forms are analytical: Do go there. Do not go there. Mostly used in one-member sentences, and occasionally – in two-member sentences: (You) mark my words. Has a general temporal meaning of future or immediate. This type of mood is not universally recognized (B. Ilyish) because it has no specific morphological characteristics. v The Subjunctive Mood represents the action as unreal with different shades of unreality: If I had gone there….
Category of Mood (3) FORMAL CLASSIFICATION (based on form): NB! All forms, rendering a non-fact meaning, look like Indicative Mood forms (Is it homonymy or polysemy? ). 1) Old subjunctive form = the bare infinitive (not common, restricted to elevated prose, poetry and official documents): Mary suggests he go to university. to be = were: I demand you were not late. Nowadays in spoken English ‘were’ is being replaced by ‘was’: My wife wishes she was a student again. Sometimes the base form of ‘to be’ is used: If it be true. . . 1) Forms = Past and Perfect Indefinite forms: If I had known it before, I would have never agreed. 2) Modal verb (should/would, may/might) + Infinitive: I suggest that we all should go there together. THE SAME PRINCIPLE: 1) non-modal forms: 2) modal forms a) the base form of a verb; b) ‘were’; c) forms identical with indicative mood forms.
Category of Mood (4) HENRY SWEET’S CLASSIFICATION (based on form): “Thought Moods”: Moods” • Conditional Mood = analytical form with auxiliaries should/would: I would study harder if I could. • Permissive Mood = combination of may/might with the Infinitive: You might do it earlier. • Tense Mood = forms of Past Indefinite and Past Perfect (tense forms from the point of view of their structure & mood forms from the point of view of their meaning): If only I knew/had known it before! • Сompulsive Mood = combination of the finite form of the verb ‘to be’ with the infinitive: You are to do it as soon as possible.
Category of Mood (5) M. Y. BLOKH’S CLASSIFICATION (based on form & meaning): Opposition: Indicative (-) vs. Subjunctive (+) Marker: the time-retrospect shift 2 Sub-Systems (1): (1) 1. The Mood of Attitudes (Spective Mood) = present forms of verb and expresses attitudes such as desire, supposition, speculation, suggestion, inducement , etc: 1. 1. Pure Spective: So be it. Happen what may. They covered the goods with canvas lest they be damaged by rain. NB! Imperative forms also belong to the Pure Spective: Be off! = I demand that you (should) be off). 1. 2. Modal Spective = forms with may/might or should + Inf. : I suggest I should see it myself.
Category of Mood (6) 2 Sub-Systems (2): (2) 2. Conditional Mood (Mood of Appraising Casual. Conditional Relations of Process) = past forms of the verb: 2. 1. Stipulative Conditional is described as past unposterior : If I were in your place, I would only be happy. If it were in my power, I wouldn't hesitate to interfere. 2. 2. Consecutive Conditional is described as past posterior: If I had known it before, I would have never agreed. SUMMARY: The subjunctive marked by time-retrospect shift, presents the 2 sets of forms: the present forms expressing the mood of attitudes, and the past forms expressing the mood of appraising causal-conditional relations of processes. The 2 subtypes of the spective mood, the pure spective and the modal spective, complement each other in different syntactic and stylistic environments; the 2 types of the conditional mood, the stipulative and the consective conditional, complement each other within syntactic constructions reflecting the causal-conditional relations of events.
Category of Mood (7) A. I. SMIRNITSKY’S CLASSIFICATION (based on form & meaning): • Subjunctive I expresses various attitudes of the speaker (desire, consideration, suggestion, request, order) & in statements not contradicting reality: I suggest that he go; Long live the king! Whatever your mother say, I won’t give up. • Subjunctive II is used in statements contradicting reality (subordinate clauses of unreal condition): If he had known this before! • Subjunctive III (Suppositional) is used with “should” structures: Should you meet him, tell him everything. • Subjunctive IV (Conditional) is used with “should”/“would” structures (in the principal clause of a conditional sentence): What would you answer if you were asked?
Category of Mood (8) CONCLUSION: The whole system of the English subjunctive mood is not stable; it is still developing and the use of forms fluctuates: ü the form ‘was’ is often used instead of ‘were’ in 3 d person Sg. in Subjunctive II: If he was here…; ü the auxiliaries ‘should’ and ‘would’ are often interchangeable; ü in colloquial speech the indicative, the past subjunctive and the modal subjunctive are often neutralized: It is impossible that he is right/ that he should be right/ that he be right. ü neutralization is also natural in reported speech in the past: She thought that if she tried harder she would get the job. instead of She thought that if she had tried harder she would have got the job.
KEY TERMS ü ü ü Time and tense Primary time and prospective time Temporal coordination “Historic present” and “attitudinal past” Lexical and grammatical aspect Reflexive, reciprocal and middle voices Direct, indirect, prepositional and adverbial passive “Thought moods” Old subjunctive Pure spective and modal spective Stipulative and consecutive conditional
Скачать презентацию Notional Parts of Speech Meet the VERB Lecture
Lecture 8.ppt