Myers EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY 4 th Ed Chapter 7

Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4 th Ed) Chapter 7 Memory James A. Mc. Cubbin, Ph. D Clemson University Worth Publishers

Memory z. Memory ypersistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information z. Flashbulb Memory ya clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Memory z. Memory as Information Processing ysimilar to a computer xwrite to file xsave to disk xread from disk z. Encoding ythe processing of information into the memory system

Memory z. Storage ythe retention of encoded information over time z. Retrieval yprocess of getting information out of memory

Memory z. Short term memory yactivated memory that holds a few items briefly ye. g. , the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten z. Long term memory ythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Encoding Effortful Automatic

Encoding z. Sensory Memory yimmediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system z. Automatic Processing yunconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency and well-learned information, such as word meanings

Encoding z. Effortful Processing yencoding that requires attention and conscious effort z. Rehearsal yconscious repetition of information xto maintain it in consciousness xto encode it for storage

Encoding z. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables y. TUV ZOF GEK WAV ythe more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 z. Spacing Effect ydistributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice

Encoding Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 Number of repetitions of list on day 1 64

Encoding Percentage of words recalled z. Serial Position Effect 90 80 70 ytendency to recall best the last and first items in a list 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list

What do we Encode? z. Semantic Encoding yencoding of meaning yincluding meaning of words z. Acoustic Encoding yencoding of sound yespecially sound of words z. Visual Encoding yencoding of picture images

Encoding z. Imagery ymental pictures ya powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding z. Mnemonics ymemory aids yespecially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Encoding z. Chunking yorganizing items into familiar, manageable units xlike horizontal organization- 1776149218121941 yoften occurs automatically yuse of acronyms x. HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior x. ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding- Chunking z Organized information is more easily recalled

Encoding z Organization benefits memory Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic encoding) Imagery (visual encoding) Chunks Organization Hierarchies

Encoding z. Forgetting as encoding failure z Information never enters the memory system z Attention is selective ywe cannot attend to everything in our environment z William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

Encoding z. Forgetting as encoding failure Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Short-term Encoding memory Long-term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting

Encoding z. Forgetting as encoding failure z. Which penny is the real thing?

Storage. Retaining Information z. Sensory Memory ythe immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system z. Iconic Memory ya momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli ya photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second y. Registration of exact representation of a scene z. Echoic Memory ymomentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Storage. Short Term Memory z. Short Term Memory ylimited in duration and capacity y“magical” number 7+/-2 Percentage who recalled consonants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of consonants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed)

Storage. Long Term Memory z. Long Term Memory yvirtually limitless capacity ywe don't have to discard old items to remember new items z. Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days yinitially rapid, then levels off with time

Storage. Long Term Memory Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 12345 10 15 20 25 Time in days since learning list 30

How Does Storage Work? z Karl Lashley (1950) ytrained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces of their cortex and retested their memory of maze ypartial memory retained z Long-Term Potentiation yincrease in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation z Strong emotions make for stronger memories ysome stress hormones boost learning and retention

Storage. Long Term Memory z Amnesia- the loss of memory z Implicit Memory yretention without conscious recollection yskills and dispositions yalso called nondeclarative memory z Explicit Memory ymemory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare yhippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Storage. Long Term Memory z MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus

Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositionsclassical and operant conditioning effects

Retrieval z. Recall ymeasure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier ylike fill-in-the-blank test z. Recognition ya measure of memory in which the person need only to identify items previously learned ylike on a multiple choice test

Retrieval z. Relearning ya measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when relearning material for a second time z. Priming yactivation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Retrieval Cues z. Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall z. Guides to where to look for info y. Context Effects xmemory works better in the context of original learning

Retrieval Cues Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Land/ water Land/ land Same contexts for hearing and recall

Retrieval Cues z Deja Vu- (French) already seen yeerie sense that "I've experienced this before" ycues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience z Mood Congruent Memory ytendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood ymemory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues z State Dependent Memory ywhat is learned in one state can more easily be remembered when in same state

Retrieval z. Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Short-term Long-term memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting

Forgetting- Interference z. Learning some items may interfere with retrieving others y. Proactive (forward acting) Interference xdisruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information y. Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference xdisruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

Forgetting- Interference z. Motivated Forgetting ypeople unknowingly revise history z. Repression ydefense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness z. Positive Transfer ysometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information

Forgetting Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded Long-term storage - Some items are altered or lost Retrieval from long-term memory depending on interference, retrieval cues moods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t z Forgetting can occur at any memory stage z As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Memory Construction z. We filter information and fill in missing pieces z. Misinformation Effect yincorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event z. Source Amnesia yattributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory Construction z. People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions z. Imagining events can create false memories z. Children's eyewitness recall y. Child sexual abuse does occur y. Some innocent people suffer false accusations y. Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony

Memory Construction z. Memories of Abuse y. Repressed or Constructed? x. Child sexual abuse does occur x. Some adults do actually forget such episodes z. False Memory Syndrome ycondition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience ysometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory Construction z. Most people can agree on the following: y. Incest happens y. Forgetting happens y. Recovered memories are commonplace y. Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable y. Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable y. Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your Memory z Study repeatedly to boost recall z Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material z Make material personally meaningful z Use mnemonic devices yassociate with peg words- something already stored ymake up story ychunk-acronyms

Improve Your Memory z. Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood z. Minimize interference z. Test your own knowledge yto rehearse it yto determine what you do not yet know