Mt Kenya University EGE 412 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Mt Kenya University • EGE 412: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION Credit Hours: 3 Pre-requisites: EGE 122 and EGE 222 Lecturer: Odanga L

Purpose An introduction to fundamentals of environmental and management

Expected Learning Outcomes 1. Discuss the making implementation of environmental policies; soil, and water conservation, Forest management, River and other aquatic environmental conservation. 2. Discuss the Role of National environmental management authority (NEMA) I National Development and Planning

Course Content Environmental conservation and its significance in Kenya; Policy making and implementation in environmental conservation; Soil and water conservation in different environments, Forests management, River catchments studies, Protected resources Land use conflicts; Aquatic environments (Lakes and marine); The role of environmental conservation in national development; National Environmental Management Authority

Teaching / Learning Methodologies Lectures; Tutorials; Class discussion Instructional Materials and Equipment Handouts; Chalk board Course Assessment Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessments (Exercises and Tests) - 30%; Total - 100%

Recommended Text Books Muchina S. J (2009); An Introduction to Environmental Management; JKF Asish Ghosh (2008); Environmental Conservation; Aph Publishing House Michael d (2005); Environmental Science: Managining Biological and Physical Resources Richard T (2002); Environmental Conservations; Person Educations

Text Books for further Reading • Journals (2002); • NEMA Publications • Michael D (2009); Environmental Science: Managing Biological and Physical Resources; Prentice Hall • William P (2007); Environmental Science: A Global Concern; Mc. Graw Hill

Environment • Origin of the term: • The word derived from the French word “environ” – some what related to “encompass” “encircle” etc. It is believed to have been introduced into the subject by biologist Jacob Van Erkulin the early 1900

Environment Many definitions exist: • The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of danger and damage. • the air, water, minerals, organisms, and all other external factors surrounding and affecting a given organism at any time.

Environment • the natural surroundings of that organism which directly or indirectly influences the growth and development of the organism. • the surroundings in which an organization operates including air, water, land natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their inter relations” – ISO • is the sum total of all living and non living factors that compose the surroundings of man

Components of the Environment • the air, water, minerals, soil, and living organisms

Components of the Environment Physical environment (abiotic) Atmosphere (air) Hydrosphere (water) Lithosphere (land) Biological environment (biotic) Biosphere= Flora-producers Fauna -consumers Microbialdecomposers Cultural environment Society Economy Politics

ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM v. Very interrelated terms • The natural surroundings of an organism, both living and physical is its environment • Ecology is a branch of study of the interrelationships with the organism and its environment. The Earth includes a variety of living things which depend in some way on other living and nonliving things in its Environment.

Ecology • Ecology is the study of the relationships between all organisms and their environment • The biosphere is the largest ecosystem of all. It consists of the thin layer of the earth's surface where all organisms live • Ecology involves collecting information about organisms and their environment, looking for patterns, and seeking to explain these patterns. It can be confidently established that Environmental Science is more or less Ecology • The ecology that takes place in a defined area is called ecosystem.

Ecosystem • is a self-sustaining collection of organisms and their environment. – a dynamic system of interaction between all of the species inhabiting an area and the non-living , physical environment. • Ecosystems consist of three levels of life: –Species - the sheer variety of species on Earth –Ecosystem s - the environments where the species evolve and live

Ecosystems • A community - which refers to the organisms that live in a particular place such as a forest (residents of a neighborhood) A habitat - refers to the physical location of a community (neighborhood). • Genetic diversity- all the variety of genes within a species (and ecosystem)

Functions of the natural environment & relationship with economic activities Natural Environmental services (raw material & energy) Production Goods & Services (recreation, clean waters, rich wildlife) Consumption Residuals Waste Management Ecosystem services/environmental services include provisioning services, such as food and water; regulating services, such as flood and disease control; cultural services, such as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth

Environment &n Human well-being is the extent to which individuals have the ability and the opportunity to live the kinds of lives they have reason to value.

Environment &n Human well-being Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and not merely the absence of disease or illness. Good health not only includes being strong and feeling well, but also freedom from avoidable disease, a healthy physical environment, access to energy, safe water and clean air. What one can be and do include among others, the ability to keep fit, minimize health related stress, and ensure access to medical care. Material needs relate to access to ecosystem goods-and-services. The material basis for a good life includes secure and adequate livelihoods, income and assets, enough food and clean water at all times, shelter, clothing, access to energy to keep warm and cool, and access to goods.

Environment &n Human well-being Security relates to personal and environmental security. It includes access to natural and other resources, and freedom from violence, crime and wars (motivated by environmental drivers), as well as security from natural and human-caused disasters. Social relations refer to positive characteristics that define interactions among individuals, such as social cohesion, reciprocity, mutual respect, good gender and family relations, and the ability to help others and provide for children. Increasing the real opportunities that people have to improve their lives requires addressing all these components. This is closely linked to environmental quality and the sustainability of ecosystem services.

Environmental issues 1. Water resources Quantity and quality: Water resources are under pressure from agricultural chemicals and urban and industrial wastes, as well as from use for hydroelectric power e. g. Kenya expects a shortage of water to pose a problem in the coming years. Water-quality problems in lakes, including water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria, have contributed to a substantial decline in fishing output and endangered fish species.

Environmental issues • Forestry Output from forestry also has declined because of resource degradation. Overexploitation over the past three decades has reduced the country’s timber resources by one-half. At present only 2% of the land remains forested, and an estimated 50 km 2 of forest are lost each year. This loss of forest aggravates erosion, the silting of dams and flooding, and the loss of biodiversity. • Mau forest, coastal forests etc • Forest depletion and livelihoods, quality of living, ecosystem services (flooding, erosion, global warming)

Environmental issues • Wildlife There a wide variety of wildlife species in Kenya, whose habitats are threatened by encroachment of man species that are threatened e. g. Birds, mammals, plants, fish etc

Environmental issues • Erosion is the removal of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other particles) in the natural environment. It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by downslope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the case of bioerosion.

Environmental issues • Erosion The process of chemical or physical breakdown of the minerals in the rocks, although the two processes may occur concurrently. Erosion is a noticeable intrinsic natural process but in many places it is increased by human land use. Poor land use practices include deforestation, overgrazing, unmanaged construction activity and road-building. .

Environmental issues • Erosion Land that is used for the production of agricultural crops generally experiences a significant greater rate of erosion that of land under natural vegetation. This is particularly true if tillage is used, which reduces vegetation cover on the surface of the soil and disturbs both soil structure and plant roots that would otherwise hold the soil in place.

Environmental issues • Erosion: However, improved land use practices can limit erosion, using techniques such as terrace-building, conservation tillage practices, and tree planting. A certain amount of erosion is natural and, in fact, healthy for the ecosystem. For example, gravels continuously move downstream in watercourses.

Environmental issues • Erosion is the removal of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other particles) in the natural environment. It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by downslope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the case of bioerosion.

Environmental issues • Excessive erosion, however, does cause problems, such as receiving water sedimentation, ecosystem damage and outright loss of soil

Environmental issues • Desertification The degradation of land in arid and dry subhumid areas, resulting primarily from manmade activities and influenced by climatic variations. It is principally caused by overgrazing, overdrafting of groundwater and diversion of water from rivers for human consumption and industrial use, all of these processes fundamentally driven by overpopulation.

Environmental issues • Desertification: A major impact of desertification is biodiversity loss and loss of productive capacity, for example, by transition from land dominated by shrublands to nonnative grasslands. In Kenya, if current trends of soil degradation continue, we will be able to feed only 25% of our population by 2025

Loss of Species • Ecosystem Services • Vultures • elephants • Tourism (also related to habitat loss) • Loss of revenue • Loss of employment • Economic stagnation

Environmental issues • All these issues compromise the ability of the environment to offer ecosystem services: the services provided by the environment/ecosystem and ecological processes including regulation of water flows and maintenance of water quality, the formation of soil, prevention of soil erosion, and nutrient cycling that maintains soil fertility, degradation of wastes and pollution, pest and pathogen control, pollination and climate regulation through carbon storage and sequestration

Environmental conservation • maintenance of the environment, maintenance of the habitat, preservation of the environs, protection of the environment • Conservation: The protection, preservation, management, or restoration of natural environments and the ecological communities that inhabit them. Conservation is generally held to include the management of human use of natural resources for current public benefit and sustainable social and economic utilization. • Environmental conservation or protection is a practice of protecting the environment, on individual, organizational or governmental level, for the benefit of the natural environment and (or) humans.

Environmental conservation • Environmental protection definition includes all available practices used to protect our environment, whether on individual, organizational or global (international) level. This basically means that each and every one of us can do something to protect our environment but of course, global actions are the ones that would help our environment the most.

Importance of environmental conservation • Natural environment = air, rivers, lakes, oceans, land & biological life • Three main functions: – Resource supplier e. g. extract raw materials and energy – Life-support system – Waste assimilator

Importance of environmental conservation • Both the formation & maintenance of gaseous composition of the air are sustained by the living components of the biosphere (plants & micro-organisms). e. g. oxygen produced by plants • Soil fertility: is one of the essentials for the existence of mankind is fully determined by the life activities of great many living creatures of the soil (invertebrates, fungi, bacteria, algae

Importance of environmental conservation • Purity & quality of water are as a result of activities of living creatures (destruction of the ever-increasing amount of pollutants and foreign or natural waste compounds are carried out by biodegrading organisms – Environment is therefore an assimilator of wastes from human activities • The diversity of living nature is an indispensable source of all our food (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), top quality materials for clothing (wool, cotton, silk, linen ) & footwear (leather), cellulose

Importance of environmental conservation • The potential value of every aspect of the environment is important e. g. unique characteristics & properties which may be potentially utilized by man now or in the future • Man himself is a sort of ecosystem – each physiologically and physically connected with an immense number of species and the environment

Importance of environmental conservation • The diversity of forms of living nature is vitally important & essential for the formation, development and maintenance of man’s spiritual & mental well-being • The position of man in the environment & his power over other living things demand a better recognition of being environmental stewards

Importance of environmental conservation & national economy • Environmental conservation not just about animals It is in fact essential to our own survival. • Importance to agriculture – Agriculture depends on the environment and we depend on agriculture. This is obvious in countries where the economies depend on agriculture but applies to all. A country’s wealth might come from something else but its population needs to eat. Conserving the environment and preventing soil erosion, desertification, and flooding is essential. Unsustainable farming techniques not only impact natural ecosystems but also ultimately make farming itself impossible. •

Importance of environmental conservation • Importance to fishing – While much of our food comes from agriculture, the oceans are also an essential source. Communities worldwide depend upon seafood. Marine conservation is vital to protect human food supplies as well as marine animals. Looking after the seas doesn’t just mean saving big, glamorous animals from extinction, important as this is. At the moment there are serious conservation issues affecting the oceans, including over fishing and pollution, bleaching of coral reefs. The complex, interlinked ecosystems need conserving in our own self-interest. •

Importance of environmental conservation • Importance to Tourism • Second foreign exchange earner • Recreation & enjoyment of the beauty and payment for it as foreign exchange or revenues from tourism •

Importance of environmental conservation • Importance to energy sector – Hydro-electric power is generated from water hence the destruction of forests will interfere with water flow in rivers as a result of degraded water catchments, water abstraction – The economy depends significantly on energy (industrial use and domestic use)

Importance of environmental conservation • Importance to infrastructure – Infrastructure is important for economic growth but we destroy the environment leading to erosion and land slides, over flooding thus interfering with roads and infrastructure in general, – The economy depends significantly on infrastructure and hence is likely to affect economic growth and development

Importance of environmental conservation • Importance to climate – Human activities impact the climate, and this affects all life. Droughts, floods, and extremes of heat and cold, are caused by global warming, which is almost certainly linked to greenhouse gas emissions. Some countries are already experiencing disastrous effects, while others it is just, for the moment, inconvenient. There are other, more local, climate changes also caused by not treating the environment with respect. For example rainfall is affected by deforestation. Conservation of natural environments should be done not just for their own sake, but also for that of the world as a whole. •

Policy • Politics: (1) The basic principles by which a government is guided. (2) The declared objectives that a government or party seeks to achieve and preserve in the interest of national community. • Management: The set of basic principles and associated guidelines, formulated and enforced by the governing body of an organization, to direct and limit its actions in pursuit of long-term goals

Global Concern towards environmental conservation • Loss of environmental services and impact on economies, livelihoods, stability, species extinction – The loss of species, will lead to loss breakdown of biogeochemical process, ecosystem and ecological processes, economies, human well-being and hunger – Many insects, which play essential roles as decomposers and pollinators, are threatened: between 100 k and 500 k species of insects are projected to become extinct in the next 300 years, a rate that equals losing 7 to 30 species per week (Mawdsley and Stork, 1995). – Vicious circle: There is a clear cause-and-effect between poverty & environmental degradation & poverty is an habitual cause of environmental degradation & undermines people’s capacity to manage resources well & sustainably

Some facts (From USAID, 2005) • Ecosystems and habitats are also threatened and are being lost at alarming levels: – More than 2/3 of the area of 2 of the world’s 14 major terrestrial biomes and more than half of the area of 4 other biomes had been converted, primarily to agriculture, by 1990 (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). – 1/5 of all tropical rain forest cover was lost between 1960 and 1990, according to the World Resources Institute (WRI). – 5% of the world’s wetlands habitat has been destroyed over the past 100 years (WRI, 2003). – The world's coastal mangroves, a vital nursery ground for countless species, are also at risk; 50% have already been cleared (WRI, 2000 -2001). – 20% of the world’s coral reefs were lost and an additional 20% degraded in the last several decades of the twentieth century (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

Policy making at Global levels

Multilateral Environmental Agreements and Kenya • See notes and print out

Environmental policies in 3 rd world • Not coherent and rationalized partly because: – poverty and socioeconomic needs are often seen as more pressing than the need for environmental controls • But caveat: we can not develop or alleviate poverty without the environment e. g Mau forest issues and the Sondu Miriu power, drying of Rift valley lakes, flooding in Budalangi, hunger, scramble and clan fighting because of pasture and water

Why Kenya has not been effective in formulating and implementing environmental policies • lack of institutional capacity and resources to mobilize and link activities effectively within and between sectors, • specific environmental sectoral laws that do not adequately articulate the links between development, population and environmental concerns; and more often conflict with the EMCA, and • limited budgetary provisions to finance the effective implementation of environmental programs set out in national development plans.

Policies

Kenya: Policy, laws • In Kenya, main functions thro government ministries and departments in a sectoral manner leading to gaps, overlaps duplication of efforts and conflicts of mandates • Some sectors include: Agricultural, Livestock, Water, Health, Energy, Mining, Human settlement, Industry, Wildlife, Forestry, Fisheries • Many national policy papers and legislation: – Sessional paper No. 6 on Environment and Development (1999), Forest Act (2005), Mining Act (Cap 306), Water Act of 2002, Kenya Forestry master Plan, EMCA (1999) The National Environment Action Plan (NEAP 1994) and the Kenya Forestry Policy, Irrigation Act (Cap 347 of 1967), Timber Act (Cap 386), Grass Fires Actetc some of which are very outdated and require review and Harmonization)

Instruments for Environmental Policy • • • Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental legislation Economic instruments Environmental standards & indicators Precautionary approach/principle International collaboration

Environmental policy in Kenya • In order to strengthen coherence within the environmental sector and addressing key environmental and development challenges facing her, Kenya is in the process of developing an environmental policy which aims to integrate environment into the wider economic context, addressing trade- offs between economic growth and poverty reduction, and environmental sustainability. • The Environmental Policy will complement Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999)

Environmental legislation • Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999) – provides for the establishment of an appropriate legal and institutional framework for the management of the environment and related matters. – is a framework environmental legislation that establishes appropriate legal and institutional mechanisms for the management of the environment. – provides for improved legal and administrative co-ordination of the diverse sectoral initiatives in order to improve the national capacity for the management of the environment. – Is in recognition that the environment constitutes the foundation of national economic, social, cultural and spiritual advancement.

Environmental legislation • Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999) – Enacted and came into effect in 1999 – Saw the formation of NEMA (NB: we wont therefore discuss NEMA again as a final topic because this is enough about it) EMCA and Environmental Conservation 1. Guides the co-ordination of environmental planning • guides co-ordination at various levels which are responsible for the preparation of the action plans which contain an analysis of the natural resources with an indication of change in their distribution and quantity over time, analytical profile of various uses and value of the natural resources • sets out operational guidelines for the planning and management of the environment and natural resources.

EMCA and Environmental Conservation 2. establishes committees that ensure ongoing projects have no negative impacts • committees in consultation with the relevant lead agencies monitor all environmental phenomena with a view to making an assessment of any possible changes in the environment and their possible impacts and also monitor the operation of any industry, project or activity with a view of determining its immediate and long-term effects on the environment

EMCA and Environmental Conservation 3. Provides guidance for the formation of quality and standards committees that ensures cleaner production with respect to air, water, soil and biodiversity • The Standards and Enforcement Review Committee deals with the issues of water and air quality. – water quality the committee gives advice on how to establish criteria and procedures for the measurement of water quality and recommends the minimum water quality standards for all the waters of Kenya and for different uses, including: -drinking water; water for industrial purposes; water for agricultural purposes, water for recreational purposes; Water for fisheries and wildlife,

EMCA and Environmental Conservation 4. provides guidelines for orders for restoration, conservation and environmental easement • An environmental conservation order may be imposed to: – Preserve flora and fauna – Preserve the quality and flow of water in a dam, lake, river or aquifer, – Preserve any outstanding geological, physiological, ecological, archaeological, or historical features of the burdened land; – Preserve scenic view; – Preserve open space; – Permit persons to walk in a defined path across the burdened land; – Preserve the natural contours and features of the burdened land; – Prevent or restrict the scope of any activity on the burdened land which has as its object the mining and working of minerals or aggregates; – Prevents or restrict the scope of any agricultural activity on the abandoned/overused land; – Create or maintain migration corridors for wildlife

EMCA and Environmental Conservation 5. provides the ways for entering both regional and international agreements and treaties • Kenya is signatory to various international and regional treaties and agreements which must always be respected and implemented. To this effect EMCA 1999 provides the required legal structures for entering into such commitments. The country participates in various conferences on climate change including the recent UNFCCC COP 17 in Durban where various countries were represented. • CAT 1: 30 Marks • Refer to the Conventions and see which of them is Kenya a signatory to /State Party and how has Kenya tried to domesticate global; environmental policies, name some of the state agencies mandated to spearhead this process of domestication

EMCA and Environmental Conservation 6. EMCA provides powers to appoint environmental assessors and inspectors • The environmental assessors work also involves the constant monitoring of activities deemed to have massive impacts on the environment 7. EMCA defines the offences related to the environment • The Act defines the various offences related to the environment and prescribes measures to be taken in case of contravention of the laid down regulations governing the environment. Offenders are entitled to appear in an environmental court and answer questions pertaining disregard for the environment

EMCA and Environmental Conservation 8. Stipulates guidelines concerning environmental impact assessment • Before a project is implemented, its potential impact should be assessed so as to determine positive or negative impact in order to take necessary precaution through; – Formation of technical advisory committees on environmental impact assessment – Application for an EIA license – Further EIA – Submission of fresh EIA report after license is issued – Transfer of EIA license

Summary of regulations

Specific highlights of EMCA i) Highlights of the Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit Regulations (EIA/EA) - Legal Notice No. 121 of 2003 • What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – is a critical examination of the effects of a project on the environment. – The goal of an EIA is to ensure that decisions on proposed projects and activities are environmentally sustainable. An EIA is conducted in order to identify impacts of a project on the environment, predict likely changes on the environment as a result of the development, evaluate the impacts of the various alternatives on the project and propose mitigation measures for the significant negative impacts of the project on the environment. – The EIA also generates baseline data for monitoring and evaluating impacts during the project cycle as well as highlighting environmental issues with a view to guiding policy makers, planners, stakeholders and government agencies to make environmentally and economically sustainable decisions. – It seeks to minimize adverse impacts on the environment and reduces risks. EIA also identifies measures to mitigate the negative impacts while maximizing on the positive ones.

Specific highlights of EMCA Environmental Audit (EA) • is the systematic documentation, periodic and objective evaluation of activities and processes of an ongoing project. • The goal of EA is to establish if proponents are complying with environmental requirements and enforcing legislation. • The purpose of EA is to determine the extent to which the activities and programs conform to the approved environmental management plan. • A comprehensive EA ensures a safe and healthy environment at all stages of project operations and decommissioning.

Specific highlights of EMCA ii) Highlights of Water Quality Regulations, 2006 (Legal notice No. 121) • Water Quality Regulations apply to water used for domestic, industrial, agricultural, and recreational purposes; water used for fisheries and wildlife purposes, and water used for any other purposes. Different standards apply to different modes of usage. These regulations provide for the protection of lakes, rivers, streams, springs, wells and other water sources. • The objective of the regulations is to protect human health and the environment. The effective enforcement of the water quality regulations will lead to a marked reduction of water-borne diseases and hence a reduction in the health budget. •

Specific highlights of EMCA ii) Highlights of Water Quality Regulations, 2006 (Legal notice No. 121) • The regulations also provide guidelines and standards for the discharge of poisons, toxins, noxious, radioactive waste or other pollutants into the aquatic environment in line with the Third Schedule of the regulations. The regulations have standards for discharge of effluent into the sewer and aquatic environment. While it is the responsibility of the sewerage service providers to regulate discharges into sewer lines based on the given specifications, NEMA regulates discharge of all effluent into the aquatic environment. • The regulations provide for the creation of a buffer zone for irrigation schemes of at least fifty (50) metres in width between the irrigation scheme and the natural water body. Standards for irrigation water are given in schedule nine of the regulations.

Specific highlights of EMCA Waste Management Regulations • Referred to as Environmental Management and Co-ordination (Waste Management) Regulations, 2006 • Waste Management Regulations are meant to streamline the handling, transportation and disposal of various types of waste. • the aim of the Waste Management Regulations is to protect human health and the environment. Currently, different types of waste are dumped haphazardly posing serious environmental and health concerns. The regulations place emphasis on waste minimization, cleaner production and segregation of waste at source. • Please discuss the challenges we are facing in waste management in Kenya

Specific highlights of EMCA iv) Highlights of the Waste Management Regulations, 2006 (Legal Notice No. 121) • The regulations have classified various types of waste and recommended appropriate disposal methods for each waste type. Under the Waste Management Regulations, NEMA licenses transporters, incinerators, landfills, composers, recyclers and transfer stations. Facilities to be licensed include local authorities, transporters and handlers of various types of waste. The licensing employs a risk-based approach by concentrating on facilities considered to pose a high risk to the environment.

Specific highlights of EMCA v) Highlights of the Controlled Substances Regulations, 2007 (Legal Notice No. 73 of 2007) • defines controlled substances and provides guidance on how to handle them. This regulation mandates NEMA to monitor the activities of persons handling controlled substances, in consultation with relevant line ministries and departments, to ensure compliance with the set requirements. Under these regulations, NEMA will be publishing a list of controlled substances and the quantities of all controlled substances imported or exported within a particular. The list will also indicate all persons holding licenses to import or export controlled substances, with their annual permitted allocations. • Which convention (s) does this apply to? ? ?

Specific highlights of EMCA v) contd: Highlights of the Controlled Substances Regulations, 2007 (Legal Notice No. 73 of 2007) • The regulations stipulate that controlled substances must be clearly labelled with among other words, “Controlled Substance. Not ozone friendly’’) to indicate that the substance or product is harmful to the ozone layer.

Specific highlights of EMCA v) Highlights on Draft Air Quality Regulations, 2008 • referred to as “The Environmental Management and Coordination (Air Quality) Regulations, 2008”. • The objective is to provide for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution to ensure clean and healthy ambient air. It provides for the establishment of emission standards for various sources such as mobile sources (e. g. motor vehicles) and stationary sources (e. g. industries) as outlined in the Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999. • Exemptions The following operations (provided they are not used for disposal of refuse), are exempt from these regulations: (a) Back-burning to control or suppress wildfires; (b) Fire fighting rehearsals or drills conducted by the Fire Service Agencies; (c) Traditional and cultural burning of savanna grasslands; (d) Burning for purposes of public health protection;

Forest Act 2005 Environmental conservation – Became operation in Feb 2007 – Its operations informed by other policies/legislation e. g. the draft Forest Policy, The Kenya Forestry Master Plan and EMCA 1999 & also bound by other statutes related to natural resource management in Kenya and international conventions – Opened commercial plantation for lease arrangement by interested groups – Compliance and enforcement strategies on forest cases (prevention of illegal acts, detection of change in cover, suppression of illegal acts – Overall spirit is devolution of authority and responsibilities in management of forests and promotion /strong emphasis on partnerships thro increased access to benefits to the communities as part of sustanaible use • Participatory forest management – cooperative behavior among users of the resource (CFAs formed to avoid free rider/tragedy of the commons

Vision 2030 & Environment • Recognizes that Environment, water, sanitation, housing is critical for sustainable human development and economic growth • Recognizes the important role of nature-based sectors for country’s economy to grow at 10%p. a. This is also because, this growth is unchecked may also cause considerable strain on the environment by the depletion of resources and production of pollutants and waste (e. g. 60% pop expected to live in urban/cities hence an urban challenge) • Recognizes linkages between poverty and environmental degradation e. g – Poverty results in situations of environmental stress thro overuse, misue and abuse and resultant environmental degradation excerbates poverty even further

Vision 2030 & Environment Outlines environmental situation in terms of 6 areas: i. Sustainable management of natural resources (water towers, etc) • • • ii. Demand for farm land forest products • iii. iv. v. vi. Degradation of the 5 water towers due to agricultural encroachment and agri-expansion a threat Water situation threatened leading to poor water quantity and quality, recurring flooding logging Acknowledges rich ecosystem and biodiversity for socio-economic and cultural benefits Wild animals in their natural habitats Medication and hazardous waste Climate change and desertification Harnessing of strategic natural resources

Soil and Water Conservation References: 1. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, by Glenn O. Schwab et. al 2. Michael, A. M. : Irrigation: Theory and Practice 3. Design of Small Dams: USDA: Bureau of Land Reclamation 4. Soil Conservation: N. W. Hudson 5. Field Engineering for Agricultural Development: N. W. Hudson.

Introduction • • Measures that provide for the management of water and soil Conservation practices involves the soil, the plant and the climate, each of which is of utmost importance. The engineering approach to soil and water conservation problems involves the physical integration of soil, water and plants in the design of a co-ordinated water management The engineering problems involved in soil and water conservation may be divided into the six following phases: Ø Erosion control Ø Drainage Ø Irrigation Ø Flood control Ø Moisture conservation and Ø Water resource development The conservation of these vital resources implies utilization without waste so as to make possible a high level of production which can be continued indefinately.

Soil and water conservation

Soil and water conservation issues • • Deforestation Overgrazing Increased abstraction of water Soil erosion Biodiversity loss Pressure on lower agro-ecological zones Human-wildlife conflict Lack of alternative incomes

Types of Erosion Two major types of erosion ü Geological erosion ü Accelerated erosion Geological erosion: includes soil-forming as well as soil eroding processes which maintain the soil in a favorable balance. Accelerated erosion: includes the deterioration and loss of soil as a result of man’s activities. Although, soil removal are recognized in both cases, only accelerated erosion is considered in conservation activities. The forces involved in accelerated erosion are: 1. Attacking forces which remove and transport the soil particles and 2. Resisting forces which retard erosion.

Soil erosion by water Water erosion is the removal of soil from the lands surface by running water including runoff from melted snow and ice. Water erosion is sub-divided into raindrop, sheet, rill, gully and stream channel erosion. Major Factors Affecting Erosion by Water 1. Climate, 2. Soil, 3. Vegetation and 4. Topography Climate: - Precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and solar radiation Temperature and wind: - evident through their effect on evaporation and transpiration. However, wind also changes raindrop velocities and angle of impact. Humidity and solar radiation are less directly involved since they are associated with temperature. Soil: Physical properties of soil affects the infiltration capacity of the soil. The extend to which it can be dispersed and transported. These properties which influence soil include:

Soil erosion by water Water erosion is the removal of soil from the lands surface by running water including runoff from melted snow and ice. Water erosion is sub-divided into raindrop, sheet, rill, gully and stream channel erosion. Major Factors Affecting Erosion by Water 1. Climate, 2. Soil, 3. Vegetation and 4. Topography Climate: - Precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and solar radiation Temperature and wind: - evident through their effect on evaporation and transpiration. However, wind also changes raindrop velocities and angle of impact. Humidity and solar radiation are less directly involved since they are associated with temperature. Soil: Physical properties of soil affects the infiltration capacity of the soil. The extend to which it can be dispersed and transported. These properties which influence soil include:

- Soil structure Texture Organic matter Moisture content Density or compactness Chemical and biological characteristics

Vegetation Major effect of vegetation in reducing erosion are: Ø Interception of rainfall Ø Retardation of erosion by decrease of surface velocity Ø Physical restraint of soil movement Ø Improvement of aggregation and porosity of the soil by roots and plants residue Ø Increase biological activities Ø Transpiration – decrease soil moisture resulting in increased storage capacity. These vegetative influences vary with the season, crops, degree of maturity, soil & climate as well as with kind of vegetative materials namely: roots, plant tops, plant residue

Topography Features that influence erosion are: ü degree of slope ü Length of slope ü Size and shape of the watershed üStraight üComplex üConcave üConvex.

Raindrop characteristics • The relationship between erosion and rain fall momentum and energy id determined by raindrop mass, size distribution, shap. E, velocity and direction. The characterization and measurement of these individual factors demand the utmost ingenuity and precision. • The resistance of a soil to erosion depends on many factors and so to measure erodibility numerically an assessment has to be made of each factor. • -nature of soil -slope of land -kind of crop. Erosivity-is the aggressiveness or potential ability of rain to cause erosion. Erodibility-is the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion.

Factors influencing erodibility • Two groups of factors. • 1. physical features of the soil. i. e what kind of soil • 2. treatment of the soil. i. e what is done with it. the part concerned with treatment has much the greater effect. And is also most difficult to access. i. e average increase in soil loss per unit increase in E I. These is a great deal of experimental evidence to suggest a link between erosive power and the mass and velocity of falling drops. Ellison(1944).

Soil detachment and transportation • The process of soil erosion involves soil detachment and soil transportation. Generally, soil detachability increases as the size of the soil particles increase and soil transportability increases with a decrease in particle size. • detachment causes damage because: 1. The soil particles are removed from the soil mass and thus easily transported. 2. The five materials and plant nutrients are removed. 3. Seeds may be separated and washed out of the soil.

Sheet erosion Uniform removal of soil in thin layers from sloping land-resulting from sheet or overland flow occurring in thin layers. minute rilling takes place almost simultaneously with the first detachment and movement of soil particles. the constant meander and change of position of these microscopic rills.

Rill erosion Removal of soil by water from small but well defined channels or streamlets where there is a concentration of overland flow. Obviously, rill erosion occurs when these channels have become sufficiently large and stable to be readily seen.

Gully erosion produces channels larger then rills. These Channels carry water during and immediately after rain. Principles of Gulley erosion: The rate of gully erosion depends primarily • on the runoff producing characteristics of the watershed • the drainage area • soil characteristics • the alignment • size and shape of gully • the slope in the channel.

Land use • Very suitable land classification. • Fairly suitable according to suitability factor. • Not suitable a particular crop. Land capability classification. • The type of soil. • Depth of soil. • Texture. • Land slope. • Past erosion on the land.

Soil erosion by wind Wind erosion is more frequent when the mean annual rainfall is low. Major factor that affects soil erosion by wind are: 1. climate 2. Soil characteristics 3. Vegetation climate: • Rainfall affects soil moisture. • Temperature humidity. • Wind.

Wind characteristics that affects soil erosion. • Duration. • Turbulent of the wind (velocity). For any given soil condition the amount of soil which will be blown depends on two factors: • The wind velocity. • The roughness of the soil surface. Soil: factors soil texture. density of soil particle and density of soil mass. organic matter content. soil moisture.

Vegetation: height of vegetation. density of cover. types of vegetation. seasonal distribution of vegetation.

Control of wind erosion. Two major types of wind erosion control consist of 1. Those measures that reduce surface wind velocity(vegetation tilling soil after rain) 2. Those that affect soil characteristics such as: conservation of moisture and tillage. contouring (teracing) generally vegetative measure tillage practices mechanical methods.

Damages done by wind 1. crop damage particularly at seeding stage. expose of land use. 2. The change in soil texture 3. Health. 4. Damage to properties (road and building).

Contouring, strip cropping and tillage. • One of the base engineering practices in conservation farming is the adjustment of tillage and crop management from uphill to downhill to contour opertions contouring, strip cropping and terracing are important conservation practices for controlling water erosion. Surface roughness, ridges, depression and related physical characteristics influenceing depression storage of precipitation.

contouring When plow furrows, planter furrows, and cultivation furrows run uphill and downhill then forms natural channels in which runoff accumulates. As the slope of these furrows increases the velocity of the water movement increases with resulting destructive erosion. In contouring tillage operations are carried out as nearly as practicals on the contour. a guide line is laid out for eash plow land the back furrows or dead furrows are plowed on these lines.

• Disadvantage: is used alone on steeper slopes or under conditions of high rainfall intensity and soil erodibility, these is an increased hazard of gullying because row breaks may release the stored water. • Strip cropping: strip cropping consist of a series of alternate strips of various types of crops laid out so that all tillage and crop management practices are performed across the slope or on the contour.

The three general types of strip cropping are: 1. Contour strip cropping with layout and tillage held closely with the exact contour and with the crops following a definite rotational sequence. 2. Field strip cropping with strips of a uniform width placed across the general slope. 3. Buffer strip cropping with strips of some grass or legume crop laid out between contour strips of crops in the regular rotations, then may be even or irregular in width.

when contour strip cropping is combined with contour tillage or teuracing, it effectively divides the length of the slope, checks the velocity of runoff, filters out soil from the runoff water and facilitates absorbtion of rain. strip cropping layout The three general methods of laying out strip cropping are: 1. Both edges of the strips on the contour 2. One or more strips of uniform width laid out from a key or base contour line. 3. Alternate uniform width and variable width correction or buffer strips.

methods of layout vary with topography and with each individual’s preference. Tillage practices: tillage is the mechanical manipulation of the soil to provide soil conditions suited to the growth of crops, the control of weeds and for the maintenance of infiltration capacity and aeration. Indiscriminate tillage, tillage without thought of topography , soil climate and crop conditions will lead to soil deterioration through erosion and loss of structure.

TERRACING This is a method of erosion control accomplished by constructing broad chennels across the slope of rolling land. Reasons for constructing terace If surface runoff is allowed to flow unimpeded down the slope of arable land these is a danger that its volume or velocity or both may build up to the points where I is not only carries the soil dislodged by the splash erosion but also has a scouring action of its own. various names given to this techniques are: terraces

functions • To decrease the length of the hillside slope , thereby reducing sheet and rill erosion. • Preventing formation of gullies and retaining runoff in areas of inadequate precipitation. • In dry regions such conservation of moisture is important in the control of wind erosion

Forest Management • Forest management is the application of modern business methods and technical handling of forestry resources and soil to produce maximum forest products • Forestry is the science and practice of managing trees and forests to provide diverse range of benefits • Conservation and sustanable use of forests can only occur if forest habitat is maintained. The sustaianable management, use and conservatio of natural forest ecosystem to maintain their health, flows of timber and non-timber products, nonmaterial values and benefits and the ecological services they may provide

Products from commercial trees • • • Nuts and fruits Oils, decorations, extracts Resins, gums, turpentine Mulch, tannin, drugs, oils, dyes Sugar, syrup Veneer, charcoal, pitch, pine oil Poles, posts Paper, paper products, wall boards Lumber, timber, wastes, Resins Medicinal plants

Relationship between forests and other natural resources Forests play important roles in the water cycle As water circulates from oceans to rivers to lakes, the forest filters the rain as it falls and serve as storage areas. A forest regulates water flow, making it possible for fish and other animal and plant life to survive Forests filter rain and help reduce the erosion of soils Trees and shrubs are responsible for removing much of the pollutant materials from the air and water run off. They also help reduce the harmful effects of excess fertilizer that enters underground water systems. Forests and living organisms have many relationships Algae, fungi, mosses, and other plants make their homes in the forest. Forests also provide shelter, food, protection and nesting sites for many species of birds and fish. Shade provided by the forest maintains proper water temperatures for the growth and reproduction of aquatic life. Forests and wildlife relationships greatly vary Depending on species, the wildlife in each forest region varies due to climate and harvesting times

Relationship between forests and other natural resources Forest diversity Biodiversity is the wealth of al life on earth, which can be considered at 3 inter-linked levels: genetic, species and ecosystems It is defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part, including a diversity within species, between species and among ecosystems

Relationship between forests and other natural resources Forest diversity Considered in terms of composition, structure and function & characterized by: Very high species richness (50% of all terrestrial species in the world found in rain forests Multi-layered structure with giant emergent trees, forest floor, herbs, epiphytic herbs, woody lianas and dark understorey Often infertile soils and rapid recycling of plant and soil nutrients Long time scales over which patterns of regeneration and reproduction take place

Tree Growth and Physiology Trees use carbon dioxide and water to do what? Manufacture simple sugars in their leaves which use additional carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen to convert simple sugars into complex sugars and starches. Nitrogen and minerals found in the soil are used to manufacture proteins which are the building blocks for growth and reproduction. How does a new tree grow? Seeds, stumps, roots, tree parts Roots and Shoots Extend through cell division and elongation. Tree roots, stems and trunks grow in diameter by adding cell layers near their outer surfaces. This growth is called the cambium and can be seen as the rings in a cross-section of tree. Water and Minerals Water and minerals are taken up through the xylem which is located just inside of the cambium. Outside of the cambium is the phloem or inner bark which carries food manufactured in the leaves to the rest of the tree. Each year the tree grows new xylem, phloem and cambium as well as heartwood. Heartwood is the inactive core that gives the tree strength and rigidity.

Forest management Types of forest cover: Indigenous Naturally regenerating forest Planted/managed forests of indigenous or exotic species NB: Not all forests are equally important for the maintenance of biodiversity

Forest management • Type of Vegetation % of total area of Kenya – Indigenous Forests 2. 1% – Plantation 3% – Woodland 3. 7% – Bushland 42. 9% – Wooded Grassland 18. 5% – Mangrove 1% – Grassland 2. 1% – Desert 13. 7% – Farmland Urban Development 16. 5% • Total 100%

Forest management • Forest type Area (ha. ) % of total closed canopy forests – Indigenous forests 1. 24 million ha. 88. 57% – Plantation forests 1. 06 million ha 11. 43% – Subtotal 1. 40 million ha. 100%

Forest management Aims of forest management Ensure high quality freshwater at acceptable flow rates, minimize erosion and movement of soil, stabilize hillsides, thro forest management in watersheds Conserve a representative sample of biological region (biome, habitat) in a state relatively unaltered by modern man and avoid the loss of species and erosion of genetic diversity Maintain areas and features that are essential for ecological processes (migrations, biological cycles and rehabilitate degraded areas Protect sites of cultural/archeological importance Ensure the supply of wood and non-wood products to satisfy local/national/international demand Provide facilities and opportunities for tourism, recreation, environmental education, research and monitoring Retain a maximum choice of land use options for the future Carbon sequenstration

Forest management activities Foster public-private partnerships for sustainable management of forest products (Timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) Raise awareness and build capacity toward forest certification and certification of forest products Promote reduced impacts logging in appropriate forest areas Encourage the planting of indigenous species with market value on private or communal land including timber and fuel wood plts (agroforestry)

Forest protection • Forest Reserves are land areas that have been surveyed, demarcated and gazetted. They can be gazetted either from Trust land or from unalienated Government land. Forests Reserves on government land are managed by the Kenya Forest Service, while those on Trust Land are managed by local authorities. • Gazetted Forest Reserves on Government land amounted to 1, 359, 254 ha, while gazetted Forest Reserves on Trust lands totalled 328, 136 ha. Therefore, about 20% of the total area gazetted as Forest Reserves.

Forest Conservancies

Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service • Natural Forest Conservation And Management This Division is involved with conservation and management of natural forest through the following; Eco-tourism development Biodiversity Management Water Shed Management Community involvement through the Community Forest Associations (CFA) – Licensing of various activities and ventures taking place in natural forests in accordance with good practices laid down in both the forest and environment legislation. – –

Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service • Enforcement And Compliance Division (ENCOM) ENCOM is charged with the provision of security forest resources in the country through enforcement of the Forest ACT 2005. • This Division is headed by a commandant with 2, 500 Rangers and Officers serving in stations, bases, and at the KFS Headquarters. • The specific roles played by ENCOM are: – – – – – Forest Protection Arresting and Prosecuting offenders Collection of intelligence Investigation of forest offences Staff discipline and capacity development Participation in national events involving the disciplined forces Inspection of forest station, plantation and natural forests Support to field officers in times of emergencies or security threats Fire disaster preparedness and fire fighting

Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service • Plantation and Enterprise Division – This division is involved in industrial forest plantations programme which is one of the core activities of KFS. – Currently there approximately 125, 000 hectares of industrial forest plantations composed of mainly Cypress, Pines and Eucalyptus. – Plantations are expected to be a major revenue earner for KFS when fully operational. – Sustained planting will be done through Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS) which currently covers over 8, 000 hectares. – Streamlining of the sawmill industry has been done through pre-qualification of suitable sawmillers. Already over 2790 sawmillers have been selected and this is expected to create 20, 000 direct jobs. – The division has also rolled out a national forest inventory to establish the existing quality and value of forests resources, as well as establish the country

Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service • Plantation and Enterprise Division – This division is involved in industrial forest plantations programme which is one of the core activities of KFS. – Currently there approximately 125, 000 hectares of industrial forest plantations composed of mainly Cypress, Pines and Eucalyptus. – Plantations are expected to be a major revenue earner for KFS when fully operational. – Sustained planting will be done through Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS) which currently covers over 8, 000 hectares. – Streamlining of the sawmill industry has been done through pre-qualification of suitable sawmillers. Already over 2790 sawmillers have been selected and this is expected to create 20, 000 direct jobs. – The division has also rolled out a national forest inventory to establish the existing quality and value of forests resources, as well as establish the country

POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES • Forest Act 2005 (Refer previous notes) • Forest Policy 2007 • The Wildlife (Conservation & Management) Act, Cap. 376 Of 1976 (Amended 1989, now Amendment Bill 2010) • Antiquities & Monuments Act, Cap. 215 Of 1984 • Agriculture Act, Cap. 318 Of 1980 (Revised 1986). . 10 • Water Act, Cap. 372 of 1951 (Revised 1972) • Water Policy, 1999 • Fisheries Act, Cap. 378 Of 1989 • Timber Act, Cap. 386 Of 1972 • Chief’s Authority Act, Cap. 128 Of 1970 (Revised 1988) • Trespass Act, Cap 294 Of 1963 (Revised 1982) • Mining Act, Cap. 306 Of 1940 (Revised 1987)

POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES Forest Policy 2007 The key elements of the new policy are: 1. A new forest legislation to implement the policy. 2. Expanded mandate in the management of all types of forests. 3. Involvement of forest adjacent communities and other stakeholders in forest management and conservation. 4. Forest management planning will be based on an ecosystem approach. 5. Appropriate incentives will be provided to promote sustainable use and management of forest resources. 6. Proposed institutional transformation of the Forest Department into a semi-autonomous Kenya Forest Service.

POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES Forest Policy 2007 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of forest policy 1. Contribute to poverty reduction, employment creation & improvement of livelihoods through sustainable use, conservation & management of forests and trees; 2. Contribute to sustainable land use through soil, water and biodiversity conservation, and tree planting through the sustainable management of forests and trees; 3. Promote the participation of the private sector, communities and other stakeholders in forest management to conserve water catchment areas, create employment, reduce poverty and ensure the sustainability of the forest sector;

POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES Forest Policy 2007 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of forest policy 4. Promote farm forestry to produce timber, woodfuel & other forest products; 5. Promote dryland forestry to produce woodfuel and to supply wood and non-wood forest products; 6. Promote forest extension to enable farmers and other forest stakeholders to benefit from forest management approaches and technologies; and 7. Promote forest research, training and education to ensure a vibrant forest sector.

Policy issues SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS AND TREES • Indigenous Forests • Farm Forestry • Forest Plantations • Dryland Forestry • Local Authority Forests • Private Forests • Roadside tree planting

Policy issues • • FOREST PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES Timber and Wood Products Woodfuel Non-wood Forest Products Forests Industries Forestry and Wealth Creation/Income generation Trade in Forest Products. . . .

Issues in Forest management • Availability Of Data And Information On Forests for planning – Physical features, biological resources (biodiversity, abundance, yields), social, policy and legal framework (pop density, patterns of forest use, land tenure, forest use & management, Management effectiveness), economic context (what economic policies & market forces are influencing rates of use of forest resources • Implementation of Policy & Legislation (are they being enforced? ) • Management & Co-ordination of Implementing Agencies (is it well coordinated? ? • Forest Excisions • Encroachment (agriculture, settlement, etc) • Community Participation In Forest Management (is it enough? ? ) • Implications Of International Agreements On Forests (are they working for us? ? Are they domesticated nationaly? ? )

River Catchment studies • The river catchment, or drainage basin, is all the land from the mountain to to the seashore, drained by a single river and its tributaries. • Catchment areas vary greatly in size - a big river may have a catchment area of several thousand square kilometres, whereas a smaller tributary will have a catchment area of only a few hectares. • Catchments are separated from each other by watersheds. The characteristics of any river (physical, chemical, biological) are determined by the nature of the catchment and the activities , both human and natural, that take place in it. • The Catchment Management process is a way of managing our fishery environment in a sustainable manner i. e. "meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generations"

Hull Rturn

River Catchment studies • THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS • In catchments which have not been cultivated or developed, the ground cover or vegetation is still in place. Ground cover is important for the following reasons: • * Plants slow down water as is flows over the land (runoff) allowing much of the rain to soak into the ground and replenish pools of underground water. Water seeps from these aquafers into rivers which are therefore usually perennial (flow throughout the year).

River Catchment studies • THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS * Plants prevent soil erosion as their root hold soil in position, preventing it from being washed away. IN addition plants break the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, thus reducing its erosive potential. Rivers running through an undisturbed catchment are clean, erosion is slow, and limited to periods of very high rainfall. * Vegetation in wetlands and on the banks of rivers is of particular importance. The roots of the reeds, sedges, trees, shrubs and grasses growing in wetlands and next to rivers bind the soil of the riverbank and prevent erosion whilst cleaning the water and regulating its flow.

River Catchment studies • What affects Catchments Sea Level Rise Land Use Change Infrastructure Development Growth Industrial Sector Changes Climate change Poor planning

River Catchment studies • DISTURBED CATCHMENTS • Where plant cover in river catchments has been disturbed by farming, industry and settlements, soil erosion increases. In addition, without plants, runoff increases and the supply of water to aquafers is reduced because less water soaks into the ground. Consequently rivers do not have a continuous supply of water from the aquafers and flow only in the rainy season. Much of the deposition of silt into estuaries results from erosion of riverbanks. When riverbank vegetation is remove, the banks are at the mercy of the erosive forces of flood waters which scour away the riverbank allowing the adjacent slope to collapse.

River Catchment studies • CATCHMENT CONSERVATION • A catchment conservation programme should include: * protection of wetlands such as vleis and marshes; * sound conservation practices on agricultural and forestry lands, eg. all ploughing and planting should be on the contour; riverbank vegetation should not be disturbed; lands should be strip cropped; * prevention of water pollution from informal settlements, industry or agriculture; * protection of riverbank vegetation.

River Catchment studies • COORDINATING LOCAL ACTION • A catchment is ideally suited to coordinated planning and management, requiring cooperation between the many land owners and residents in the catchment. • A first step in encouraging collective action is the formation of a catchment management committee, with representatives of all major land users (eg. farmers, municipal and government officials), which is guided by regional planners. This management committee should survey the catchment, and investigate with specialists the best methods of controlling problems.

River Catchment studies • COORDINATING LOCAL ACTION • It is important that all people in the catchment are involved in each stage of the conservation programme, from planning to execution, as they will be responsible for its success or failure. Catchment management committees, which may be private, provincial or national, are active in both rural and urban areas

Protected Resources Protected Area • An area of land or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources and management through legal or other effective means • Although Pas meet the general purposes contained in the above definition, in practice the precise purposes which Pas are managed differed greatly e. g. – Scientific research, wilderness protection, preservation of species and genetic diversity, maintenance of environmental services, protection of specific natural and cultural features

Protected Areas • Definition of IUCN Categories – Ia: Strict Nature Reserve: PA managed mainly for science – Ib: Wilderness Area: PA managed mainly for wilderness protection – II: National Park: PA managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation – III: Natural monument: PA Managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features

Protected Areas • Definition of IUCN Categories – IV: Habitat/Species Management Area: PA managed for Conservation thro management intervention – V: Protected Landscape/Seascape: PA managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation – VI: Managed Resource PA: PA managed mainly for sustainable use of natural ecosystems

Protected Areas • Protected areas (PAs) are a traditional means for pursuing wildlife management and have become increasingly central to conservation strategies – How many National Parks and Reserves doe we have in Kenya? ?

Wildlife Conservation • Importance of Wildlife – Economic value (foreign exchange earnings thro tourism – Ecological value – important for maintaining ecological balance of the environment – Nutritional and Medicinal value – Socio-cultural Value (recreation, culture,

Land Use Conflicts • Land is not only the basic aspect of subsistence for many people around the world, it can also contain valuable structures and resources on (or beneath) it. • Land is a very strategic socio-economic asset, particularly in poor societies where wealth and survival are measured by control of, and access to, land. • Demand for land is high therefore competing uses. – Food and biomass production, housing, infrastructure and recreation all compete for space, with impacts on our climate, biodiversity and ecosystem services • People often disagree as to the best way that areas should be used. There will usually be advantages and disadvantages to each way of using the land. • Land Use Conflict typically occurs at the intersection of different land uses, e. g Agricultural land, /Rural development, native forest/Grazing Livestock/infrastructural development etc.

Land Use Conflicts • A land-use conflict occurs when there are conflicting views on land-use policies, such as when an increasing population creates competitive demands for the use of the land, causing a negative impact on other land uses nearby. • Land Use Conflict typically occurs at the intersection of different land uses, e. g. Agricultural land, /Rural development, native forest/Grazing Livestock/infrastructural development etc. •

Land use conflicts: Settlements • Advantages – New housing can be needed in rural areas – Building the houses creates jobs • Disadvantages – Housing uses up the most fertile, lower land – The spread of towns and cities can damage wildlife and increase pollution

Land use conflicts: Forestry • Advantages – – Kenya will not need to import so much timber It can stabilize soil and reduce erosion Creates jobs Other functions of forests? ? ? ? • Disadvantages – Some people believe it spoils the look of the landscape – It damages the habitat of the local fauna and flora – Takes up land for settlement and agriculture? ? •

Land use conflicts: Urban • Two common types of land-use conflicts in urban areas : – bunghole industrial or residential-transport land-use conflicts. Advantages – Creates jobs – Increases economic growth – Ensures infrastructural growth – Incomes Disadvantages – can cause noise, air and water pollution. – Apart from the noise and gases released by factories, pollution is also caused by the vehicles which carry materials to and from factories, which can cause incessant noises and smoke. – Heavy road traffic also causes traffic congestion, affecting many nearby residents. – In addition to factories, the presence of main roads also affects residents, causing the same problems as above.

Land use conflicts: Campsites • Advantages – Creates jobs and the tourists will spend money in the local area – Encourages people to look after their local area as this will attract more tourists • Disadvantages – Tourists can disturb the local people – The jobs provided are often seasonal (high season) – Large numbers of tourists can damage the countryside •

Land use conflicts: Agriculture • Advantages – – Ensures food security Creates jobs Provides income Provides market • Disadvantages – Could lead to clearing of forests – Could pollute environment (noise, pesticides, erosion, overgrazing) – Could make the countryside monotonous e. g. where monoculture is practiced, loss of good view – Lead to species loss (loss of their habitats – Could introduce invasive species (e. g. through GMO crops) – May lose cultural sites (shrines, sacred forests etc) •

Addressing land use conflicts • through planning and control of the changing production system by making the choice and allocation of land use activities consistent with the principles of sustainable development. • Better land use assessment and planning that factor all various uses and advantages • Better policies and land use plans • Address security of land tenure/squatter issues • Improve governance - minimize corruption and land grabbing • Strike a balance between environmental and economic needs

LAST TOPIC Aquatic environments (fresh water & marine) • To Cover (very brief & not detailed): • diversity and ecology of freshwater and marine habitats and organisms, • the impacts of humans on these environments, and • the conservation and management of these critical resources

Aquatic environments (fresh water & marine) • Aquatic environments make up >70% of the Earth’s surface. They host a huge diversity of life and ecosystems, many of which are vital to man.

What are the basic needs of aquatic biota? • • CO 2 Sunlight Nutrients- food & minerals

What factors influence the availability of those basic needs? • Substances dissolved in water- Nitrates, phosphates, potassium, O 2 • Suspended matter- (silt, algae) can affect light penetration • Depth • Temperature • Rate of flow • Bottom characteristics (muddy, sandy, or rocky) • Internal convection currents • Connection to or isolation from other aquatic ecosystems.

Types of Aquatic Ecosystems • Freshwater Ecosystems – Standing Water- lakes & ponds – Moving Water- rivers & streams • Transitional Communities – Estuaries – Wetlands- bogs/fens, swamps, marshes • Marine Ecosystems – – Shorelines Barrier Islands Coral Reefs Open Ocean

Freshwater Ecosystems • Usually 0. 005% salt – Some exceptions: • Great Salt Lakes- 5 -27% salt • Dead Sea- 30% salt • Moving water- high elevations; cold; high O 2; trout; streamlined plants • Standing water- lower elevations; warmer; less O 2; bass, amphibians; cattails, rushes

How is a lake stratified and what lives in each level? • Epilimnion- upper layer of warm water; high light & O 2; ex: water striders, phyto- & zooplankton, fish • Thermocline (mesolimnion); middle layer; medium light & O 2; ex: phyto- & zooplankton, fish • Hypolimnion- lower layer of cold water; lower light & O 2; ex: fish • Benthos- bottom level; no light & little O 2; ex: anaerobic bacteria, leeches; insect larvae • Littoral- near the shoreline; cattails, rushes, amphibians, etc.

Transitional Communities • ESTUARIES • Where freshwater dumps into ocean • Brackish (less salty than seawater) • Has rich sediments that often form deltas • Productive & biodiverse • Organisms adapted to varying levels of salinity as tide ebbs & flows • “Nursery” for larval forms of many aquatic species of commercial fish & shellfish

Transitional Communities • WETLANDS • Land saturated at least part of the year • Swamps- have trees like bald cypress; high productivity • Marshes- no trees; tall grasses; high productivity • Bogs/Fens- may or may not have trees; waterlogged soil with lots of peat; low productivity Swamp Marsh – Fens- fed by groundwater & surface runoff – Bogs- fed by precipitation Bog Fen

Importance of Wetlands • • • Highly productive- get lots of sunlight, ↑ plants = ↑ animals Nesting, breeding ground for migratory birds Slows flooding by absorbing runoff Silt settles, making water clearer & nutrient rich Trap & filter water Natural chemical reactions neutralize and detoxify pollutants Gives H 2 O time to percolate thru soil & replenish underground aquifers. Threats- artificial eutrophication draining, sedimentation via construction “Nature’s Septic Tank”

Marine Ecosystems • SHORELINES • Rocky coasts- great density & diversity attached to solid rock surface • Sandy beaches- burrowing animals • Threats- due to hotels, restaurants, homes on beach, more plant life destroyed, destabilizing soil, susceptible to wind & water erosion • Insurance high; danger of hurricanes, erosion • Build sea walls to protect people but changes & endangers shoreline habitat

Marine Ecosystems • BARRIER ISLANDS • Low, narrow offshore islands • Protect inland shores from storms • Beauty attracts developers = developers destroy land • New coastal zoning laws protect future development

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS • CORAL REEFS • Clear, warm shallow seas • Made up of accumulated calcareous (made of calcium) skeletons of coral animals • Formation depends on light penetration. • Have a symbiotic relationship with algae • Very diverse, abundant (rainforests of sea) • Threats- destructive fishing (cyanide & dynamite to stun fish), pet trade; about 3/4 ths have been destroyed

What factors can alter aquatic ecosystems? • Natural Succession- normal cycle of pond becoming forest • Artificial Succession- humans add N & P to water via fertilizer & sewage causing succession to happen faster = EUTROPHICATION

What factors can alter aquatic ecosystems? • Humans! – Find food (siltation) – Recreation – Waste disposal (pollution) – Cooling of power plants – Transportation – Dams, canals – Climate change