Motivation • Motivation – is a process, that account for individual’s intensity, directions and persistence of efforts toward attaining a goal. Motivation – concern any goal, but we will focas on organizational goals
Early Theory of Motivation In the 50 -th four theories of motivation were developed, but now there are questions as to their validity 1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (A. Maslow) 2. Theory X and Theory Y (D. Mc. Gregor) 3. Two Factors Theory (Hertzberg) 4. Mc. Clelland Theory of Needs
Contemporary Theory of Motivation 5. 6. 7. Self-Determination Theory Cognitive-Evaluation Theory (hypothesizes that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task). Self-Concordance Theory (considers how strongly peoples’ reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values) 8. Job Engagement 9. Goal-Setting Theory 10. Self-Efficacy Theory (also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory ) 11. Reinforcement Theory 12. Equity Theory 13. Model of Organizational Justice 14. Expectancy Theory 15. Discussion: Fear as Motivator
References Self-Determination Theory • E. Deci and R. Ryan (eds. ), Handbook of Self-Determination Research (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2002); • R. Ryan and E. Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being, ” American Psychologist 55, no. 1 (2000), pp. 68– 78; • M. Gagne and E. L. Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and Work Motivation, ” Journal of Organizational Behavior 26, no. 4 (2005), pp. 331– 362. • E. L. Deci, R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation, ” Psychological Bulletin 125, no. 6 (1999), pp. 627– 668; • G. J. Greguras and J. M. Diefendorff, “Different Fits Satisfy Different Needs: Linking Person-Environment Fit to Employee Commitment and Performance Using Self-Determination Theory, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 2 (2009), pp. 465– 477; • D. Liu, X. Chen, and X. Yao, “From Autonomy to Creativity: A Multilevel Investigation of the Mediating Role of Harmonious Passion, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 96, no. 2 (2011), pp. 294– 309. Self-Concordance Theory • J. E. Bono and T. A. Judge, “Self-Concordance at Work: Toward Understanding the Motivational Effects of Transformational Leaders, ” Academy of Management Journal 46, no. 5 (2003), pp. 554– 571. • J. P. Meyer, T. E. Becker, and C. Vandenberghe, “Employee Commitment and Motivation: A Conceptual Analysis and Integrative Model, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 89, no. 6 (2004), pp. 991– 1007.
References Job Engagement • W. A. Kahn, “Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work, ” Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 4 (1990), pp. 692– 724. • www. gallup. com/consulting/52/Employee-Engagement. aspx • A. Fox, “Raising Engagement, ” HR Magazine (May 2010), pp. 35– 40; “Gallup’s Customer Engagement Index” (March 11, 2010), www. smart. KPIs. com. Goal-Setting Theory • E. A. Locke, “Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives, ” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 3 , no. 2 (1968), pp. 157– 189. • P. C. Earley, P. Wojnaroski, and W. Prest, “Task Planning and Energy Expended: Exploration of How Goals Influence Performance, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 72 , no. 1 (1987), pp. 107– 114. • See M. E. Tubbs, “Goal Setting: A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Empirical Evidence, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 71 , no. 3 (1986), pp. 474– 483; and E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, “New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory, ” Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, no. 5 (2006), pp. 265– 268. • E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation, ” American Psychologist 57, no. 2 (2002), pp. 705– 717. • E. A. Locke, “The Motivation to Work: What We Know, ” Advances in Motivation and Achievement 10 (1997), pp. 375– 412; and Latham, Erez, and Locke, “Resolving Scientific Disputes by the Joint Design of Crucial Experiments by the Antagonists, ” pp. 753– 772.
References Self-Efficacy Theory • M. Salanova, S. Llorens, and W. B. Schaufeli, “Yes I Can, I Feel Good, and I Just Do It! On Gain Cycles and Spirals of Efficacy Beliefs, Affect, and mangagement, ” Applied Psychology 60, no. 2 (2011), pp. 255– 285. • A. Bandura and D. Cervone, “Differential Engagement in Self-Reactive Influences in Cognitively-Based Motivation, ” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 38 , no. 1 (1986), pp. 92– 113. • D. Eden, “Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Organizations, ” in J. Greenberg (ed. ), Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science, 2 nd ed. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003), pp. 91– 122. Reinforcement Theory • L. Komaki, T. Coombs, and S. Schepman, “Motivational Implications of Reinforcement Theory, ” in R. M. Steers, L. W. Porter, and G. Bigley (eds. ), Motivation and Work Behavior, 6 th ed. (New York: Mc. Graw-Hill, 1996), pp. 87– 107. Equity theory • P. S. Goodman, “An Examination of Referents Used in the Evaluation of Pay, ” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 12 , no. 2 (1974), pp. 170– 195; • W. Scholl, E. A. Cooper, and J. F. Mc. Kenna, “Referent Selection in Determining Equity Perception: Differential Effects on Behavioral and Attitudinal Outcomes, ” Personnel Psychology 40 , no. 1 (1987), pp. 113– 127; • M. L. Williams, M. A. Mc. Daniel, and N. T. Nguyen, “A Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents and Consequences of Pay Level Satisfaction, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 2 (2006), pp. 392 – 413. • E. Walster, G. W. Walster, and W. G. Scott, Equity: Theory and Research (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1978); • J. Greenberg, “Cognitive Reevaluation of Outcomes in Response to Underpayment Inequity, ” Academy of Management Journal, March 1989, pp. 174– 184.
References Model of Organizational Justice • D. P. Skarlicki and R. Folger, “Retaliation in the Workplace: The Roles of Distributive, Procedural, and Interactional Justice, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 82, no. 3 (1997), pp. 434– 443; • D. A. Jones, “Getting Even with One’s Supervisor and One’s Organization: Relationships Among Types of Injustice, Desires for Revenge, and Counterproductive Work Behavior, ” Journal of Organizational Behavior 30, no. 4 (2009), pp. 525– 542. • J. C. Shaw, E. Wild, and J. A. Colquitt, “To Justify or Excuse? A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effects of Explanations, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 3 (2003), pp. 444 – 458. Expectancy Theory • V. H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: Wiley, 1964). • H. G. Heneman III and D. P. Schwab, “Evaluation of Research on Expectancy Theory Prediction of Employee Performance, ” Psychological Bulletin 78, no. 1 (1972), pp. 1– 9; T. R. Mitchell, “Expectancy Models of Job Satisfaction, Occupational Preference and Effort: A Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Appraisal, ” Psychological Bulletin 81 , no. 12 (1974), pp. 1053– 1077; • W. Van Eerde and H. Thierry, “Vroom’s Expectancy Models and Work-Related Criteria: A Meta-Analysis, ” Journal of Applied Psychology 81 , no. 5 (1996), pp. 575– 586. • L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler III, Managerial Attitudes and Performance (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1968); and J. J. Donovan, “Work Motivation, ” in N. Anderson et al. (eds. ), Handbook of Industrial, Work & Organizational Psychology , vol. 2 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), pp. 56– 59.
Application of Motivation Concepts The Job Characteristics Model Job Redesign - Job Rotation - Job Enrichment Alternative Work Arrangements - Flextime - Job Sharing - Telecommuting Employee Involvement Programs - Participative Management - Representative Participation Establishing a Pay Structure Rewarding Individual Employees through Variable-Pay Programs 1. Piece-Rate Pay 2. Merit-Based Pay 3. Bonuses 4. Skill-Based Pay 5. Profit-Sharing Plans 6. Gainsharing 7. Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) Developing a Benefits Package Employee Recognition Programs