Morphology I Basic concepts and terms II Derivational

Morphology I. Basic concepts and terms II. Derivational morphology: Derivational processes III. Inflectional morphology: Inflection IV. Function words V. Problems in morphological description VI. Interaction between morphology and phonology VII. Collocations Yun-Pi Yuan 1

Basic Concepts and Terms (1) Morphology: ¬ The study of the structure of words & how words are formed (from morphemes) Morpheme: ¬ The smallest unit of language that carries meaning (maybe a word or not a word) ¬ A sound-meaning unit ¬ A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function ¬ The level of language at which sound and meaning combine A. Free morpheme: lexical & functional morpheme B. Bound morpheme: derivational & inflectional Yun-Pi Yuan 2

Morphemes lexical free Morphemes (open classes) functional (closed classes) bound derivational inflectional (Yule 78) Yun-Pi Yuan 3

Free Morpheme I. Definition: can occur by itself, not attached to other morphemes II. Examples: girl, teach, book, class, the, of, etc. III. Two kinds A. lexical morpheme (open class) 1. feature: has lexical meaning; new examples can be freely added 2. examples: N, Verb, Adj, Adv (content words) B. functional morpheme (closed class) 1. feature: new examples are rarely added (but not impossible to add) Yun-Pi Yuan 2. examples: Pro, Prep, Conj, Art. (function words) 4

Bound Morpheme I. Definition: must be attached to another morpheme II. Derivational morpheme A. may change syntactic class B. to form new (different) words C. examples: -able, -ex, un-, re-, -ness, etc. III. Inflectional morpheme A. Different forms of the same word (no new word added) B. Not change syntactic class (nor adding lexical meaning) C. To indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word D. Only 8 kinds in English: -’s, -s (plural nouns), -ing, -ed/en, -est, -er, -s (S-V agreement) Yun-Pi Yuan 5

Exercise (1) v. What’s the difference between the two morphemes “able” and “-able”? • able (adj. in “I’m able to do it”) • -able (e. g. , “enjoyable”) vable lexical (free) morpheme v-able derivational morpheme Yun-Pi Yuan 6

Basic Concepts and Terms (2) Stem (root, base): the morpheme to which other morphemes are added free (e. g. teacher, dresses, unkind) Stem bound (e. g. inept, unkempt, repeat) Yun-Pi Yuan 7

Basic Concepts and Terms (3) Affix: Prefix e. g. unhappy Infix e. g. absogoddamlutely (see Yule 69: Kamhmu; Nash 56: Bontoc) Suffix e. g. happiness Yun-Pi Yuan 8

Exercise (2) ¬Define all the terms in the Yule chart (p. 78), and give examples of each. ¬Identify all the morphemes in the sentence below, and label them as L (lexical), F (functional), D (derivational), or I (inflectional). Annie, a hard working learner, painstakingly checked her homework. Yun-Pi Yuan 9

Derivational Morphology ¬Processes which form new words ¬Processes occur according to rules (which show the relation between words and provide ways to form new words) ¬Not all derivational rules have been figured out yet. Yun-Pi Yuan 10

II. Derivational Processes: A Method to Get New Words 1. Derivation: (or Derivational affixation, Affixation) 2. Compounding: combine two or more morphemes to form new words 3. Reduplication: full or partial repetition of a morpheme 4. Blending: parts of the words that are combined are deleted 5. Clipping: part of a word has been clipped off 6. Acronyms: abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters 7. Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb) 8. Extension of word formation rules : Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though it’s not 9. Functional shift (Conversion): A change in the part of speech 10. Proper names Common words 11. Coining: Creating a completely new free morpheme 12. Onomatopoeia: words imitate sounds in nature Yun-Pi Yuan 11 13. Borrowing: The taking over of words from other languages

1. Derivation (1) ¬ Derivation (also called derivational affixation or affixation): affixes are added to other morphemes; derived by rules (Nash 56; Yule 69) A. different rules, e. g. N V + affix worker V N + affix hospitalize V ADJ + affix activate ADJ N + affix national ADJ affix +ADJ unkind B. multiple combination of rules e. g. organizational. Yun-Pi Yuan 12

1. Derivation (2) Tree structure of “organizational” ADJ N Affix V Affix N Affix organ ize ation al Yun-Pi Yuan 13

2. Compounding (1) ¬ N Compounding (compounds): combining two or more free morphemes (roots) to form new words N ADJ V P N N N ADJ N V N fire engine greenhouse jumpsuit wall paper bluebird killjoy book case N textbook P N afterthought outpatient Yun-Pi Yuan in-laws 14

2. Compounding (2) ADJ N ADJ nation-wide sky blue pitch-black (pitch-dark) N ADJ P ADJ ADJ red - hot far - fetched Yun-Pi Yuan ADJ P ADJ overripe ingrown outspoken outstanding 15

2. Compounding (3) V N ADJ P V V V N V ADJ V P V V V Spoon-feed whitewash outlive blow-dry Steam-roller dry-clean underestimate breakdance Yun-Pi Yuan 16

2. Compounding (4) N N N dog food box stone age cave man (repeated application of the rule that allows a noun to branch into two nouns. ) Yun-Pi Yuan 17

2. Compounding (5) ¬Eng. orthography not consistent in representing compounds – Written as single words – Written with a hyphen – Written as separate words ¬Possible to recognize noun compounds by stress pattern (an e. g. of interaction between morphology and phonology) – greenhouse vs. green house; hot dog vs. hot dog Yun-Pi Yuan 18

2. Compounding (6) ¬Some Chinese examples: ¬汽車、火車 ¬馬車、牛車 ¬機車、貨車 ¬腳踏車、三輪車 (Nash 57) Yun-Pi Yuan 19

3. Reduplication ¬ Reduplication: full or partial repetition of a free morpheme; sometimes with variation full partial with variation so-so 一點點 zigzag bye-bye 冷冰冰 dilly-dally 天天. 人人蹦蹦跳 hotchpotch 來來. 往往 hodgepodge 點點. 滴滴 mishmash 卿卿我我 (Nash 57 for more examples) Yun-Pi Yuan 20

4. Blending (1) ¬Blending (blends): similar to compounding, but some parts of the free morphemes involved are lost (usually keeping 1 st part of 1 st word + end of 2 nd word) e. g. brunch breakfast+ lunch smog smoke+ fog motel motor+ hotel Yun-Pi Yuan 21

4. Blending (2) newscast news + broadcast telex teleprinter + exchange bit binary + digit Reaganomics Reagan + economics fantabulous fantastic + fabulous Yun-Pi Yuan 22

5. Clipping ¬ Clipping (clipped forms): part of a free morpheme is cut off (i. e. , shortening a polysyllabic word); often in casual speech e. g. prof. math gas (also in names) phys-ed lab dorm Liz ad bike flu Kathy poli-sci porn fax Ron doc sub lit. , ling. Lyn Yun-Pi Yuan 23

6. Acronyms (1) ¬Acronyms: abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters A. follow the pronunciation patterns of Eng. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) TOEFL (Test of Eng. as a Foreign Language) AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) NASA (National Aeronautics & Space Administration) UFO ( ? ) Yun-Pi Yuan 24

6. Acronyms (2) B. If unpronounceable each letter is sounded out separately ATM (automatic teller machine) I. Q. (intelligence quotient) MRT (Mass Rapid Transit) MTV (music television) VCR (video cassette recorder) TGIF ( ? ); ASAP ( ? ) WYSIWYG ( ? ) Yun-Pi Yuan 25

6. Acronyms (3) C. Customary to sound out each letter even if the combined initials can be pronounced. AIT American Institute in Taiwan UCLA The University of California at Los Angeles Yun-Pi Yuan 26

6. Acronyms (4) ¬Acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms: – laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) – radar (radio detecting and ranging) – zip (zone improvement plan) (Yule 68) Yun-Pi Yuan 27

7. Back formation (1) ¬ Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb)—Yule 67 ¬ It starts with an existing word and forms “backwards, ” by taking off what appears to be a suffix but really is not, resulting a new word thought already to exist (Nash 59). ¬ A “mistake” based on the similarity of an existing free morpheme to some (originally uninvolved) morphological process Yun-Pi Yuan 28

7. Back formation (2) e. g. editor edit donation donate burglar burgle zipper zip television televise babysitter baby sit Note: derivational affixation: teach back formation: editor edit Yun-Pi Yuan teacher 29

8. Extension of word formation rules ¬ Extension of word formation rules: Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though it’s not burger (mar)athon a(lco)holic hamburger telethon workaholic cheese burger danceathon buffalo burger walkathon fish burger vege burger tofu burger Yun-Pi Yuan 30

9. Functional shift (Conversion) ¬ Functional shift (or conversion, category change): A change in the part of speech V N a guess, a must, a spy, a printout, walk, run, laugh, touch N V position, process, contact, notice, party, fax, butter, bottle (computer-related terms) input, output, format V ADJ see-through, a stand-up comedian Yun-Pi Yuan 31

10. Proper names common words (1) ¬ Proper names Common words A. People jack lumberjack, jack of all trades tomcat, tomboy, peeping Tom 阿花 (三八阿花) B. Real people Earl of Sandwich, teddy bear, Marquis de Sade sadism, sadist; 杜康 Yun-Pi Yuan 32

10. Proper names (2) C. Places Hamburger, marathon, bikini, Shanghai, champagne, cognac, 香港腳, 蒙古大夫, 哈蜜瓜 D. Mythology Tantalus tantalize Eros erotic; Narcissus narcissistic Mars martial psyche, panic, Echo E. Brand names band-aid, zipper, Xerox, coke, Scotch tape, Kleenex, Vaseline, 生力麵Yuan Yun-Pi 33

11. Coining ¬Coining (Coinage): Creating a completely new free morpheme, which is unrelated to any existing morphemes; a rare thing e. g. googol, pooch, Nylon Note 1: “Kleenex, ” “teflon” are not really coinages (according to Nash’s definition) though Yule puts them under this category “Aspirin” (might have relation to chemical name) and “Xerox” (which might come from Greek) and “vaseline” are also questionable. Note 2: everyday usage of “coining” linguistic definition of “coining” Yun-Pi Yuan 34

12. Onomatopoeia ¬ Onomatopoeia: words imitate sounds in nature (or in technology), but need to conform to phonological system of the language l l l l l A dog: bow wow or woof-woof, 汪汪 A clock: tick-tock, 滴答 A rooster: cock-a-doodle-doo 咕咕咕 A camera: click, 喀擦 A duck: quack 嘎嘎 A cat: meow 喵喵 Ring of a bell: ding-dong, 叮咚 A cow: moo, 哞哞 A bee: buzz, 嗡嗡 Yun-Pi Yuan A snake: hiss, 嘶嘶 35

13. Borrowing ¬ Borrowing (Borrowed words or loan-words): the taking over of words from other languages A. Loan translation (or calque): direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language (Yule 65) l hot dog 熱狗 l superman 超人 B. Transliteration l l l cool 酷 DINK 頂客 YUPPIE 雅痞 Yun-Pi Yuan 36

III. Inflection (1) v Inflectional morphology: adds grammatical functions (i. e. , number, tense, aspect, gender, case), so related to syntax, but does not create new words (so not related to the lexicon). A. Eng. : inflections (8 kinds) are all suffixes B. Other languages (e. g. of prefixes & infixes): a. Quiche (spoken in Mexico): prefixes for tense Yun-Pi Yuan 37

III. Inflection (2) b. Ganda (language spoken in Uganda): (Yule 80) omu- (inflectional prefix) + singular noun aba- (inflectional prefix) + plural noun e. g. , omusawo (doctor) abasawo (doctors) omukazi (woman) abakazi (women) c. Swahili (spoken in east Africa): (Nash 66) prefixes added to verbs to show person & tense ni-na-soma “I am reading” (na- present tense) u-na-soma “You are reading” a-na-soma “He is reading” Yun-Pi Yuan 38

III. Inflection (3) ni-li-soma “I was reading” (li- past tense) u-li-soma “You were reading” a-li-soma “He was reading” ni-ta-soma “I will read” (ta- future tense) u-ta-soma “You will read” a-ta-soma “He will read” d. Tagalog (a lang. of the Philippines) (Yule 81) Infixes: partial reduplication (of 1 st syllable) for future tense e. g. , basa “read’ bili “buy” sulat “write” babasa “will read” bibili “will buy” susulat “will write” Yun-Pi Yuan 39

III. Inflection (4) e. Ilocano (a lang. of the Philippines) (Yule 81) infixes: partial reduplication for plural nouns e. g. , ulo “head” dalan “road” biag “life” mula “plant” ululo “heads” daldalan “roads’ bibiag “lives” mulmula “plants” Yun-Pi Yuan 40

III. Inflection (5) Inflections on a word influence syntactic choices in other parts of a sentence A. That planter grows. . B. Those planters grow. . v Basic word structure in English: (DER) Base (DER) (INFL) e. g. plant er s un organ ize ed Yun-Pi Yuan planters unorganized 41

III. Inflection (6) A problem in analysis: Mandarin inflectional/functional “了”: v Ø Inflectional: • Ø Perfective aspect: 怎麼碰了杯子也不喝？ Functional: • Sentence final particle: 他胖起來了把球拿走了 Yun-Pi Yuan 42

IV. Function Words Free functional morphemes v Ø Definition: (Nash 64) A list of function words in Eng: (Nash 65) v Ø Ø More than inflections Eng. And Chinese tend to isolate grammatical functions out into free morphemes • Ø 杯子在桌子上 Some other langs. tend to use bound (inflectional) morphemes • e. g. , Russian (Nash 12), Swahili (Nash 66) Yun-Pi Yuan 43

V. Problems in Morphological Description ¬ Bound stem receive, unkempt, inept; cranberry? Huckleberry? ¬ Unidentifiable or inseparable elements • Due to historical influences and borrowing: A. Plural form: l sheep; man men B. Past tense: l read; go went C. Noun ADJ: l law (old Norse into old Eng) legal (from Latin) l mouth (old Eng. ) oral (Latin) (Yulee 79) Yun-Pi Yuan 44

VI. Interaction Between Morphology and Phonology (1) A. Past tense in English (inflection) past tense morpheme /d/=allomorphs {d, t, Id} 1. Verbs ends in +voiced /d/ • e. g. agreed, dragged 2. Verbs ends in -voiced • /t/ e. g. worked, missed 3. Verbs ends in alveolar stop • /Id/ e. g. , loaded, estimated Yun-Pi Yuan 45

VI. Interaction Between Morphology and Phonology (2) B. Plural form (inflection) plural morpheme /z/=allomorphs {z, s, Iz} 1. Noun ends in +voiced /z/ e. g. flags, games 2. Noun ends in -voiced /s/ e. g. maps, banks 3. ends in +sibilant /Iz/ e. g. glasses, watches C. Negative (Nash 51) /In/ = {In, I } Yun-Pi Yuan 46

VI. Interaction Between Morphology and Phonology (3) ¬ Morphophonemic Rules: The rules that determine the pronunciation of the regular past tense, plural morphemes, and negative prefix are called morphophonemic rules because morphology adds the affix to the root, and the phonology controls the pronunciation of the affix (morpheme). Yun-Pi Yuan 47

VII. Collocations A. Definition: combinations of words stored as whole units in the brain, like one big word; So, unnecessary to be put together using syntax— can be called up for use all at once. B. Examples: and (fork, knife, bread, pepper, salt, butter) harm; business; a mistake How’re you? How do you do? Nice to meet you. I’m so glad you could bring Pamela. * That Pamela could be brought by you makes me so glad. * That you could bring Pamela makes me so glad. * I’m so glad Pamela’s Yun-Pi Yuan being brought by you was possible. 48