Morpho-phonology Assignment Answersː Yoruba Continuous Aspect Morpheme and

Morpho-phonology Assignment Answersː Yoruba Continuous Aspect Morpheme and Allomorphsː m 101. [m bi ] ‘vomitinɡ’ before bilabials ɱ 68. [ɱ fɔ ] ‘washinɡ’ before labio-dentals n 73. [n ra ] ‘buyinɡ’ before alveolars and pre-palatals ɲ 124. [ɲ dʲ i ] ‘stealinɡ’ before palatalized plosives ŋ 66. [ ŋ ɡɛ ] ‘cuttinɡ’ before velars Assimilation to place of articulation Continuous [m ] before + bilabials or / ___ + bilabials Aspect [ɱ ] before + labio-dentals / ___ + labio-dentals Morpheme [n ] before + alveolars / ___ + alveolars /N / & pre-palatals [ɲ ] before + palatalized plosives / ___ + palatalized plosives [ŋ ] before + velars / ___ + velars

Morpho-phonology Assignment Answersː Assimilation to place of articulation Continuous [m ] before + bilabials Aspect [ɱ ] before + labio-dentals Morpheme [n ] before + alveolars /N / & pre-palatal [ɲ ] before + palatalized plosives [ŋ ] before + velars [N -ɡɛ ] [N -bi ] [m bi ] ‘vomitinɡ’ [N -fɔ ] [ɱ fɔ ] ‘washinɡ’ [N -ra ] [n ra ] ‘buyinɡ’ [N -dʲ i ] [ɲ dʲ i ] ‘stealinɡ’ [ŋ ɡɛ ] ‘cuttinɡ’ The continuous aspect morpheme is not found before vowel-initial verbs which might show us clearly the real morpheme. The nasal phonemes /m/, /n/ or another nasal could equally be the continuous aspect morpheme. Since we don’t know which it is, we list it as /N /.

Morpho-phonology Review What is the difference between a phonological process and a morphological process?

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESS: common sound change in a particular environment in roots MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS: common sound change in a particular environment where words or morphemes come together. Voicing and weakening assimilation LUMUN Sudan /k/ [ɣ] in-between vowels [k] elsewhere Complete assimilation CAIRO ARABIC /l/ /d/ before + d /n/ before + n /kakɛk/ [kaɣɛk] ‘tree type’ /s/ before + s /il-dars/ /iddars/ ‘the lesson’ /il-nimra/ /innimra/ ‘the grade’ /il-satr/ /issatr/ ‘the line’

How does phonology help literacy development? 2. Sometimes sounds change when words or parts of words are joined in various ways. Phonology helps us find the best spelling rules for these difficult situations. (Steps 18 -19)

Steps for finding spelling rules when words or morphemes come together (2 of 2) 18. Identify Morphophonological Changes 19. Identify Word Boundary Changes

PHONEME: the smallest contrastive sound in a language LUMUN [kaβɪk] ‘rain’ MORPHEME: the smallest MUNDARI part of a word with /pɪɟa/ ‘Don’t askǃ’ meaning WORD: the smallest unit of language that can be pronounced by itself and have meaning for speakers ENGLISH day, days

A Word • • can be pronounced in isolation. is always pronounced the same (in the same dialect) (in isolation or slow speech). has meaning. has 1 or more morphemes.

Morphological Processes Across Word Boundaries Weakening Voicing Assimilation to the place of articulation Deletion (Elision) [+ATR] spreading (rare) These processes also occur across morpheme boundaries.

LUMUN Sudan Weakening & Voicing /c/ [j] in-between vowels In roots Across morpheme stomach’ boundary Across word boundary that day’ Original /pɪcɔk/ /ɪ-carak/ Sound [pɪjɔk] ‘tree type’ [ɪjarak] /ana/ /caɽɪ/ /cɛn/ [anajaɽɪjɛn] ‘in- ‘and Sound can change across word boundaries. So, SOUND CHANGE IS NOT A GOOD ENOUGH REASON FOR CONNECTING MORPHEMES. Morphemes with sound changes could be separate words.

EJAGHAM Vowel Deletion (Elision) ( = nothinɡ) V before + V Across morpheme boundary Across word boundary Original /apini-a/ /akɔɛ-a/ Sound [apina] [akɔa] /ka/ /eti/ [keti] /ka/ /oso/ [keso] ‘he. tumbles-always’ ‘he. coughs-always’ ‘in tree’ ‘in sky’ Sound can change across word boundaries. So, SOUND CHANGE IS NOT A GOOD ENOUGH REASON FOR CONNECTING MORPHEMES. Morphemes with sound changes could be separate words.

How do we decide if there is a word break? Consider the following important factorsː • • • Semantic (Rules 1 -2) Grammatical (Rules 3 -6) Psychological (Rules 7 -8) Strong evidence Medium strength evidence Weak evidence These rules are only a starting point for deciding word breaks in the orthography. After discussion and testing, speakers should have the final say about word breaks.

Semantic (strong evidence for separate words) Rule 1: If the morpheme said by itself has meaning for speakers, it can be written as a separate word. hair brush hairbrush day Monday Tuesday Not *Mon Not *Tues

Semantic (strong evidence for connected words) Rule 2: Two morphemes should be written as one word when their combination has a different meaning than when they are separate. blackboard wildcat greenhouse hairbrush black board wild cat green house hair brush (no meaning)

Grammatical (medium strength evidence for separate words) Rule 3: If another morpheme can sometimes come between 2 morphemes, they should be written separately LUMUN Sudan Since the word cik ‘up’ can be separated from the verb pathuttet ‘vomited’ in (a), the word cik should not be written attached to the verb in (b) (a) pathuttet o. Iunan cik ‘vomited Jonah up’ (b) pathuttet cik ‘vomited up’ [paðʊttɛccik]

Grammatical (medium strength evidence for connnected words) Rule 4: Morphemes that can have changes in sound when next to more than one part of speech can be connected with each of the words. GAAHMG Sudan Relative clause marker =ɛ (becomes =i when attached to [+ATR] words) Nouns na a ga a ɾɛ ‘who is a hunter’ na mə i d i ‘who is an elder’ Adjectives na a ga a ɾ ba nd a lɛ ‘who is a weak hunter’ na a ga a ɾ ə ni ‘who is a bad hunter’ Verbs na ŋa ɲɛ ‘who files’ na cu d i ‘who climbs’ Adverbs na cu d ca bɛ ‘who climbs up’ na ŋa ɲ ə nd ə gi ‘who files with force’

Grammatical (medium strength evidence for separate words) Rule 5: If the morpheme can be moved to a different place within the sentence, it should be written as a separate word. He will go. Will he go? He did go. Did he go?

Grammatical (medium strength evidence for separate words) Rule 6: If a morpheme is clearly a separate word in one construction, it is best to write it as a separate word in other constructions. The preposition to is definitely a separate word in (a); therefore, it is considered a separate word elsewhere. (a) Where did you go to? (b) I went to town.

Psychological (weak evidence for connnected words) Rule 7: If speakers are not comfortable about pronouncing a morpheme by itself, it should probably be written connected to another morpheme. English speakers are not comfortable pronouncing the following by themselves; they are not words: re-, un-, -able, -ness English speakers are comfortable pronouncing the following by themselves; they are words (even though there is little meaning by themselves) to, at, not

Psychological (weak evidence for connnected words) Rule 8: Follow the natural word length in the language as much as possible If the language tends to have short words, such as in Gbaya (Kresh) of Sudan, there may be no need to join morphemes. If the language tends to have long words, such as in Swahili, joining may be more acceptable to the people.

‘BELI Sudan Should the prepositions and pronouns be separate words or connnected? Indepenedent pronouns Factors to considerː ma ‘I, me’ 1. The prepositions and pronouns can be pronounced by ji ‘you SG’ themselves and have meaning for speakers. nɛ ‘he/she, him/her’ 2. The same pronouns occur before or after verbs jɛ ‘you PL’ 3. Short words are very common in ‘Beli. Prepositional pronouns Ama nɪ ga ŋɛrɛ ‘They go to the chief’ (ga ‘to’) /Ama nɪ ga-ma/ [Ama nɪ gama] ‘They go to me’ /Ama nɪ ga-ji/ [Ama nɪ geji] ‘They go to you SG’ /Ama nɪ ga-nɛ/ [Ama nɪ gɛnɛ] ‘They go to him/her’ /Ama nɪ ga-jɛ/ [Ama nɪ gɛjɛ] ‘They go to you PL’ Prepositional pronouns Ama nɪ nɪ ŋɛrɛ ‘They go with the chief’ (nɪ ‘with’) /Ama nɪ nɪ-ma/ [Ama nɪ nɪma] ‘They go with me’ /Ama nɪ nɪ-ji/ [Ama nɪ niji] ‘They go with you SG’ /Ama nɪ nɪ-nɛ/ [Ama nɪ nɪnɛ] ‘They go with him/her’ /Ama nɪ nɪ-jɛ/ [Ama nɪ nɪjɛ] ‘They go with you PL’

‘BELI Sudan Should the prepositions and pronouns be separate words or connnected? Factor 1. The prepositions and pronouns can be pronounced by themselves and have meaning for speakers. (Semantic) Rule 1: If the morpheme said by itself has meaning for speakers, it can be written as a separate word According to rule 1 (semantic rules are strong evidence), the prepositions and pronouns are all separate words. ga ‘to’ nɪ ‘with’ ma ‘I, me’ ji ‘you SG’ nɛ ‘he, him’ jɛ ‘you PL’ Factor 2. The same pronouns occur before or after verbs. (Grammatical) Rule 5: If the morpheme can be moved to a different place within the sentence, it should be written as a separate word. According to rule 5 (grammatical rules are medium strength evidence), the pronouns are separate words since they have the same form when before or after verbs. Factor 3. Short words are very common in ‘Beli. (Psychological) Rule 8: Follow the natural word length in the language as much as possible

LUMUN Sudan Should the object pronouns be separate words or connnected? Independent pronouns 1. No words come between verbs and object pronouns. /ɔ-ʊŋ/ [ɔʊŋ] ‘you SG’ 2. Object pronouns cannot occur in other positions /ɔ-ɔk/ [ɔɔk] ‘he/she’ of the sentence. Only independent pronouns /ɔ-nɔn/ [ɔnɔn] ‘you PL’ have the ɔ- prefix. /ɔ-kɪn/ [ɔɣɪn] ‘they’ 3. Long verbs are common in Lumun. Object pronouns kʷɔkkɔðɛ caman ‘He made fruit’ /kʷɔkkɔt ɛ-ʊŋ/ [kʷɔkkɔðʊŋ] ‘He made you SG. ’ /kʷɔkkɔt ɛ-ɔk/ [kʷɔkkɔðɔk] ‘He made him. ’ /kʷɔkkɔt ɛ-nɔn/ [kʷɔkkɔðɛnɔn] ‘He made you PL. ’ /kʷɔkkɔt ɛ-kɪn/ [kʷɔkkɔðɛɣɪn] ‘He made them. ’ Object pronouns kʷɪmmat caman ‘He saw fruit’ /kʷɪmmat-ʊŋ/ [kʷɪmmaɾʊŋ] ‘He saw you SG’ /kʷɪmmat-ɔk/ [kʷɪmmaɾɔk] ‘He saw him’ /kʷɪmmat-nɔn/ [kʷɪmmannɔn] ‘He saw you PL’

LUMUN Sudan Should the object pronouns be separate words or connnected? Factor 1. No words come between verbs and object pronouns. (Grammnatical) Rule 3: If another morpheme can sometimes come between 2 morphemes, they should be written separately Since no words come between verbs such as /kʷɔkkɔt ɛ/ ‘he made’ and object pronouns such as /ʊŋ/ ‘you SG’, there is no evidence from rule 3 for the object pronouns to be written separately. /kʷɔkkɔt ɛ-ʊŋ/ ‘he. made-you. SG’ Factor 2. Object pronouns cannot occur in other positions of the sentence. Only independent pronouns have the prefix -ɔ. (Grammatical) Rule 5: If the morpheme can be moved to a different place within the sentence, it should be written as a separate word. Since the object pronouns cannot be moved to another place in the sentence without changing forms, there is no evidence from rule 5 for the object pronouns to be written separately. Factor 3. Long words are common in Lumun. (Psychological) Rule 8: Follow the natural word length in the language as much as possible According to rule 8 (psycological rules are weak evidence), the object pronouns can be written connected to verbs.

Class Assignmentː 1. Write 3 morphological rules for the sound changes when Lumun object pronouns are connected to verbs (deletion, voicing and weakening, complete assimilation). Give examples for each. Reading Assignment You can have your cake and eat it, too. . . pg 1 -7