Modern English Lexicology Course Structure Timing

Modern English Lexicology Course Structure

Timing • • 10 lectures 7 seminars consultation exam

Basic Topics • • • Etymology Morphology Word Formation Semasilogy Meaning English Vocabulary as a System

Basic Topics • • • Synonyms, antomyms, etc. Free Word Groups Phraseology Regional Variants and Dialects Lexicography Lexicological Analysis

Exam Structure • 2 theoretical questions • lexicological text analysis

Literature • • • Akhmanova O. S. Lexicology. Theory and method. – M. : Nauka, 1972. – 340 p. Anikeyenko I. G. , Boitsan L. F. English lexicology: Seminars. – K. : KNLU, 2006. – 110 p. Arnold I. V. The English word. – M. : Prosveshcheniye, 1966. – 346 p. Ganetska L. V. Lexi-maker. – K. : KNLU, 2004. - 80. Ginzburg R. S. , Khidekel S. S. , Knyazeva G. Y. , Sankin A. A. A course in modern English lexicology. – M. : 1979. – 230 p. Rayevska N. M. English Lexicology. – K. : Vyshcha shkola, 1979. – 335 p. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. – Л. : ЛГУ, 1963. Арнольд И. В. Лексикология современного английского языка. – М. : Изд-во лит. на иностр. яз. , 1989. - 351 с. Кунин А. В. Английская фразеология. – М. : Высшая школа, 1970. – 344 с. Мостовий М. І. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Харків, 1993. Никитин М. В. Лексическое значение слова (структура и комбинаторика). – М. : Наука, 1983. – 200 с. Харитончик З. А. Лексикология английского языка. – Минск : Вышэйшая школа, 1992. – 229 с.

Lecture 1. Lexicology as a Branch of Linguistics and its Links with Other Linguistic Disciplines Lexicology (Gr. lexis ‘word’ and logos ‘learning’). The subject -matter of L. – the word and its properties as the main unit of language. Word + word equivalents (ready-made set expressions) make up the vocabulary of a language. Is word a nominative or communicative unit?

Functions of the word ü Nominative (to name things, phenomena, properties, relationships, concepts etc. ü Referential (refers to things, objects etc. ) ü Deictic (pointing at smth. ) ü Representational ü Communicative? (Yes, if it is a one-word sentence) Word – a two-faceted unit:

Morpheme – Word-combination Morpheme Word language unit language @ speech unit smallest, indivisible, divisible into morphemes not autonomous (can occur in speech) part of the word part of word combination and free word-group

What does it mean “ to know the word? ” • • its meaning(s) structure (morphological, synthetic, semantic) word combinations (set expressions) functions spelling sound form (pronunciation) grammatical valence (being a notional or auxiliary part of sentence)

Problems of lexicology 1) essential character of LU, definition of the word; 2) systemic description of vocabulary; 3) regularities of evolvement, development and functioning; 4) semantic analysis of the word, components of meaning; 5) word building, morphemic structure and derivational potential; 6) classification of words; 7) word as a structure and system; 8) combinability of words, free and set word groups (idioms); 9) classification of words; 10) how words are kept in our memory (in association? access to words on the whole or to its parts? ) etc.

Methodological Approaches to Word Ø diachronic: the focus of historical lexicology (deals with the evolution of word-stock, origin, change and development of words, linguistic and nonlinguistic factors modifying their structure, meaning and usage); Ø synchronic: makes the focus of descriptive lexicology (deals with the vocabulary at a given stage, with morphological and semantic structures of words) (first distinguished by the Swiss philologist F. de Saussure); Ø structural: word as a morphological structure (morphemes, allomorphs, productive/nonproductive, etymology of morphemes), synthetic structure (word formation: one-root words, compound words, derivatives, derivational compounds) @ semantic structure (semantic changes, transformation of meanings, metaphor, metonymy, polysemy); Ø systemic (word as a system): vocabulary (native and loan words), lexicosemantic groups (parts of speech), semantic fields, thematic groups, morphological groups (word families, e. g. dog-doggish-doglike etc. )

Approaches to Classification of words Approaches and principles of classification (grouping) are various according to: a) grammar b) structural c) morphological d) semantic e) stylistic f) territorial and other properties f) notional – auxiliary words; g) word-families – ‘гнізда слів’

Linguistic relations between words ü Syntagmatic ( SR between words are linearly ordered and depend on context, i. e. a stretch of speech sufficient to determine the meaning of a polysemantic word. SR are studied by contextual, distributional, transformational and other types of analysis); ü Paradigmatic (PR between words are vertically ordered. PR determine the vocabulary system and deal with a) interdependence of elements within words and b) interdependence of words within the vocabulary.

Links with other linguistic branches with Ggrammar: “s” – lexicolization of the gr. form (colours, advices - ‘info’, customs, damages – ‘compensation’, tights) Word building via conversion – word has other gr. paradigm: look - to look, mother – to mother Gr. context becomes valid for the meaning: She took a book (V+N) She took to thinking/travelling (V+Gerund) She took me to be asleep (V+ obj. with he Infinitive) You were late. I took it. (V+ Pron. ) BUT: to smoke a cigarette to smoke fish (meat) the table is round the table is rich Flying planes can be dangerous ( meaning is ambiguous, Gr. Context here is powerless).

with Phonetics. Meaning depends on: • stress (rebel - rebel, object – object , ) I can’t eat anything – I can’t eat anything a ‘dancing ‘girl (Participle I) – a ‘dancing girl “dancer” • length (beach - bitch, seat - sit) • voiced/voiceless consonants (said – sat, head - hat) • Intonation (You are too clever – with positive / negative connotation) with Stylistics for it studies lexicological problems of meaning, synonymy, differentiation of words according to the sphere of communication

Methods of research in lexicology • • • Method of opposition Method of distributional analysis Method of combinatory analysis Method of contextual analysis Method of constituent analysis Method of derivational analysis Method of morphemic analysis Method of IC and UC constituents Method of synchronic and diachronic analysis Method of SA (speech act) аналіз Method of frame analysis

Method of Oppositions Protagonist - Rus. Scholar Trubetskoy The theory is based on the idea that opposition is possible only if there are similarities and differences between its components. Similarities – for doing comparisons, differences – for contrasting and finding out differentiating features. Hence any opposition has a distinguishing feature. : : - a sign of opposition Types of opposition: - binary: availability/ unavailability of the distinguishing feature - gradual : members differ in the degree of intensity: affect-torment-torture (різний ступінь інтенсивності страждання); - Equipollent: quality differences, e. g. kid ‘козеня’ : : kid ‘лайка’ (шкіра) – (a case of metonymy) kid ‘козеня’: : kid ‘дитина, маля’ - (metaphore) girl : : maiden (poetic) : : lass (Scot. ) – stylistic synonyms The method is effective for classifying words.

Distributional analysis (DА) Originates from structuralism. Distribution – environmental location/position of the word, its combinability with other words. Classes of words are marked by letters ( make up distributional formulas). make+N - make a coat make+(the)+N+ V - make the machine go; make + A - make sure make+ A+N+for+N - make a good wife for him Distributional formulas are effective for classifying examples, revealing variations, functioning, combinability. Widely used in Lexicography (Hornby) and Applied Linguistics (Palmer, Perebiynis)

Valent analysis (VA) • VA (Lat. valentia ‘power’) was introduced in 1948 by Ru. Katsnelson, Stepanova, Leykina • VA – combinatory ability to enter into relations with other words in sentence. Monovalent words: fall, drown ( cf. : Ukr. падати, тонути) Divalent words: to find, to catch (Ukr. знаходити, ловити) Multivalent words: to give, to present (Ukr. давати, дарувати) Is applied in word-building, discovering interference of denotative and connotative shades of meaning. Types: inner (in word formation) and outer (word valency).

Contextual analysis (CА) (London School: B. Malinovsky, G. Ferth): “The word and utterance are situationally and socially dependent ”. Types of context: Lexical, Synthetic Morphemic Mixed CA takes into account the setting, speech situation, social roles, background knowledge of speakers

Componential Analysis • Distributional, contextual and valent analysis are based on syntagmatic relations between words. Componential analysis – on paradigmatic relations in the system of language. This is the method of revealing the semantics of words. Seme – semantic component of the word, elementary component of meaning of the word. The founders of CA – American anthropologist F. Goodenough and W. Laundsberry (on Amerindian kinship terms); The followers– G. Kartz, G. Fodor, E. Nida, G. Lakoff, Y. Apresyan, I. Arnold. Y. Karaulov and others. The Principle of CA – in Thesaurus dictionaries (words are arranged according to the meaning and thematic groups).

Sememe (Gr. Sema) (meaning of morpheme - L. Bloomfield) - is easily distinguished by native speakers of English, e. g. hum – ‘a continuous murmuring sound’ has two sememes: [sound] and [continuance], in its turn murmur– ‘a low continuous sound, vague or indistinct’ gives two more sememes [not loud] and [not clearly]. All in all – 4 semes Hierarchy of semes: – Classeme – categorial seme – Hyperseme – thematic seme – Marker – descriptive seem – Distinguisher – identifying seme, e. g. Spinster: ‘never married’ – distinguisher, ‘woman’ – marker, noun] – seme of category

Derivational synthesis and Morrphemic analysis • Communication is a synthesis and analysis of nomination (theory of word-formation and morphemics) • Speaker: Makes synthesis, creates new word on the given basis. • Listener: Analyses the components of words and decodes them. DS – position of speaker, MA – position of listener • DS and МА - one object but different aims. DS – analysis of word building structure: affixation, conversion etc. МА – morphemic structure (IC, UC)

Synchronic and diachronic Analysis (SА @ DА) • SA – at the given stage of development, is based on the comparison and contrast with other lexical units of the same lexical system for finding out similarities and differences, for finding the place of the word and its components in this system (e. g. its morphological segmentation and comparison of the affixational morpheme with the root morpheme as a derivational and productive stem). • DА – word on different stages of its development (e. g. division of the word on the earlier stage of its development, its etymology: ill-tempered (e. g. Scan. illr ‘bad’ + Lat. tempero ’to cool, to mix’ + Eng. – ed )

Lecture 2. Etymology • What do you think etymology is? • What approach should be taken to study etymology of English vocabulary: synchronic or diachronic?

Native words of Indo-European stock Native words of Common Germanic stock A native word is of Anglo-Saxon origin brought into English in the 5 th century by the Germanic tribes (the Angles, Saxons @ Jutes)

Words of Indo-European vocabulary a) the names of celestial bodies : "sun" (Germ. Sonne, Icelandic sol, Lat. sol, Rus. солнце, Ukr. сонце); "moon“ (Germ. Mond, Lat. mens, Gr. Mene, Rus. месяц, Ukr. місяць); b) names of natural phenomena @ substances: "wind" (Germ. Wind, Ukr. віmep; "water” (Germ. Wasser, Ukr. вода, Gr. hydra, Lat. Unda); c) words expressing close family relations: "father" (Germ. Vater, Gr/Lat. pater, Sanskrit pitar), "mother“(Germ. Mutter, Ukr. мати, Lat. mater), "brother“ (Germ. Bruder; Ukr. брат, Latin frater); "sister“ (Germ. Schwester, Ukr/Rus. сестра , Lat. soror); d) names of people & some parts of the body: "Man" (Germ. Mann, Sanskrit -Mann); "nose" (Germ. Nase, Rus/Ukr. нoc/ніс, Lat. nasus); e) names of some animals: "mouse" (Germ. Maus, Rus. мышь, Lat. mus); f) some numerals: ”one” (Germ. ein; Ukr/Rus. один, Latin unum, "two" (Germ. Zwei, Ukr/Rus. два, Lat. duo), "three“(Germ. Drei, Rus. Ukr/Rus. Три, Lat. tres); g) names of some kinds of trees and the word "tree" itself (Ukr/Rus. дерево, Gr. drus, Sanskrit dru ).

Words of Common Germanic Group name: a) natural phenomena: "rain“ (Germ. Regen, Dutch Regen), b) seasons: "Summer" (Germ. Sommer), "winter“ (Germ. Winter); d) objects of surrounding nature: "wood" (Old Germ. Weter; Old Norwegian- vitur), “field” (Old Eng. feld, Germ. Feld; Old Dutch veld); a) principal colours: "blue" (Germ. Blau, Swedish bla); e) trees, plants, fruits: "oak" (Germ. Eiche), “grass” (Germ. Grass); f) household articles, domestic animals, birds: "house" (Germ. Haus), "bed" (Germ. Bett), "hen" (Germ. Hahn); f) food products: "bread" (Germ. Brot), "milk" (Germ. Milch); h) parts of the body: "hand" (Germ. Hand), "finger" (Germ. Finger); i) some adjectives: "good" (Germ. Gut), "small" (Germ. schmall); k) many verbs, including all strong verbs: “fall" (Germ. Fallen), "bring“ (Germ. Bringen), "drink" (Germ. Trinken); N. B. !!! Here belong structural elements which form the basis of the lang. : articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and modal verbs

Basic structural elements of English • • • Articles: a, an, the Pronouns: : I, he, she, we, you I Propositions: at, on, if, by Conjunctions: and, which, that, but Numerals: one, ten, fifty, the third Modal and auxiliary verbs: be, shall, will

• Thus etymologically, conceptually and grammatically English remains Germanic. • Words of Germanic origin have the greatest currency in everyday speech. • 3) Words which are used only in English are not numerous: bird, girl, bad, boy, black, blue and some others.

Features of native word-stock: 1) a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency; 2) high frequency value; 3) a developed polysemy; 4) are mostly monosyllabic; 5) show great world-building power; 6) enter a number of set expressions, e. g. , "watch" is one of the 500 most frequent English words: Word-family: watch-dog, watcher, watchful, watch-out, watchword, etc. Some set expressions: be on the watch, keep watch, watchful as a hawk. A proverb: The watched pot never boils (сf. Ukr. ‘ Хто над чайником стоїть, в того вода не кипить’), (Rus. ’ Когда ждешь, время долго тянется)‘

Borrowings • Borrowings (loan-words) are conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. A loan-word is taken from another language and is modified in phonemic shape, spelling, meaning or paradigm according to the standards of English. • Apart from words word-building affixes were borrowed (e. g. -able, - ment, - ity etc. )

Borrowings are due to such events: 1) the Roman invasion 2) the introduction of Christianity 3) the Danish and Norman conquests. And in modern times 4) active contacts with countries worldwide (in modern times) Features Are used in the written style of speech Are more abstract, bookish and terminological The process of borrowing foreign words is active and productive in Mod. E. and is one of the sources of enriching the English vocabulary. Two different terms should be distinguished here: 1) source of borrowing (the l-ge from which the loan word was taken into English) e. g. Eng. table < Fr. table 2) origin of borrowing ( refers to the l-ge to which the word may be traced), e. g. table Fr. < table < Lat. tabula or Elephant < Egyptian < French < English

Types of borrowings • Translation-loans – words and expressions formed from the material available in English but according to foreign patterns (cf. Rus. стенная газета – wallpaper, Fr. Cela va sans dire – ‘i t goes without saying’) • Semantic borrowing - a word acquires a new meaning, e. g. pioneer ‘first’ > ‘a member of the young pioneer organization’ or preserves one of its meanings, e. g. cannon < Fr (a polysemantic word) < Eng. only ‘gun’, Fr. sport ‘pleasures, entertainment’ < Eng. sport only as ‘outdoor game and exercise’. • Barbarisms – not assimilated in any way and for which there are corresponding English equivalents (It. ciao – Eng. good-bye)

Assimilation of borrowings and their types • • Three types are distinguished: 1) phonetic (comprises changes in sound form and stress when /combinations of/ sounds alien to English conform to its norms): communique, café, coup d’ etat /e/>/ei/, Germ. spitz /jpits/>Eng. /spits/. The degree of assimilation depends on the period of borrowing - the earlier> the fuller assimilation (plate), later > as in French (regime, valise); 2) grammatic (change in paradigm): Fr. finir-finisson, Eng. finishes, -ed, -ing, but datum-data, criterion-criteria, crisis-crises etc. ; 3) lexical, or semantic (narrowing of meaning – polysemantic > mono-semantic, acquires specialization, generalization or new meaning). It is a process of acquiring a currency not only in written but also in neutral and oral style of speech. Fr. cry, dean, image were religious terms, later – everyday words. Besides, the borrowed word begins to combine with native root and derivational morphemes and in this way forms hybrids: table-cloth, simple-minded, battle-field – the 1 st component is Romanic, the 2 nd – Germanic. In words by-product, outline – the 1 st component is Germanic and the 2 nd - Romanic

Degrees of assimilation * Complete (undergo all types of assimilation); * Partial (lacks one of the types of assimilation) which are subdivided into: a) not assimilated semantically – shah, rajah, bei, rickshaw, sherbet etc. denoting objects peculiar to the original country; b) not assimilated grammatically – genius – genii, bacillus-bacilli, formulae, index-indices; c) not assimilated phonetically – machine, tobacco, camouflage, bourgeois d) not assimilated graphically – ballet, buffet, bouquet, cliché etc * Not assimilated at all (barbarism)– ciao, addio, affiche ( for placard), ad libitum ( for pleasure), bambino, tête- a-tête, Blitzkrig, bonmot etc.

Etymological doublets • These are two or more words different in form but which go back, by different ways, to the same original word. In many cases one and the same word was borrowed twice either from the same language at different periods of time or from different languages. This accounts for the existence of canal (Lat. ) – channel (Fr. ), balsam (Gr. ) – balm (Fr. ), skirt (Sc. ) – shirt (Eng. ). They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning and current use. In doublets whole and hale we find traces of OE dialects (‘healthy’, ‘free of disease’ - both > OE hāl, drag –draw both come from OE dragan). • Etymological doublets are divided into 4 groups: • Scandinavian-English doublets skirt - shirt, screech – shriek, scar-share, scabby-shabby - from OE and Scandinavian; • Latin doublets (Lat. discus – OE disc ) • Native doublets ( dish < ME dish < OE disc); • Miscellaneous doublets ( Parisian Fr. chase and of OFr. origin catch, chieftan-captain, guard-ward, gage-wage (‘a stake’, ‘bet’). The total number ~ 1500

Periods of Latin borrowings • Early Latin loans (via Anglo-Saxon tribes who were in contact with the Romans): cheese, street, wall, wine, cup, mule, cook, pepper, dish, kettle, chest, pear, plum, beet, mile, mill, ass, colony et. • Later Latin loans, 6 -7 th cent. ( when converted to Christianity): altar, candle, chapter, feast, cross • The third period: a) Norman conquest in 1066 and Renaissance: animal, article, antenna, genius, stimulus, omnibus, nucleus, datum, index, series, species, alibi, item, maxi/minimum, superior, prior, senior, junior etc • The latest period of Lat. loans: (abstract and scientific terms): e. g. (exempli gratia), i. d. (id est –that is to say), a. m. , p. m. , AD, etc. (et cetera), cf. ( confer – compare), ibid. (in the same place), op. cit. (opus citatum – a work cited) , viz. (videlicet – in other words)

French borrowings • 1) early loans – simple short words: age, air, arm, boil, brace, breeze brush, cage, calm, car case, chain, chance, change, chase, chief, clear, close, corpse, cry, capital, danger, final, mercy, probable, many juridical and military terms: court, crime, claim, justice, suit, judge battle, navy, soldier, troops, sergeant, prison • 2) later loans – vocabulary of church and literature: blame, lesson, pray, service, tempt, novelist, publisher, magazine, editor, sir, madam; of cookery: jelly, fry, pastry, roast, sauce, toast; French endings: -able, -age, -ry, -age, - ess (drinkable, husbandry, sheperdess) etc.

Greek borrowings • Particularly in scientific terminology: analysis, botany, comedy, chorus, democrat/cy, physics, dialogue, episode, epos, philology, philosophy, problem, rhythm, scene, tragedy, scheme, ode, psychiatry, pediatrics, gymnastics, adenoids etc • In linguistics: antonym, archaism, dialect, idiom, etymology, euphemism, homonym, homophone, lexicology, metaphor, metonymy, neologism, polysemy, synecdoche, synonym

Scandinavian borrowings • ‘k’ before ‘e’, ‘i’, e. g. keg, kid, cake etc. • ‘sk’: scare, skin, skirt, sky , score, skull, scant • Nouns: anger, bull, by-law, calf, crop, egg, wing gate, guest, fellow, knife, root, sister, window • Adjectives: flat, ill, low, loose, meak, odd, ugly, rotten, wrong etc. • Verbs: bask, cast, call, drown, die, droop, gape, guess, thrust, get, give, take, want, raise etc. • Pronouns: same, they, their, them

Celtic loan-words • Place-names: Avon (Celt. ‘water’), London (

Lecture 3. Word-building / Wordformation in English Topics for discussion Morphological structure of a word. Morpheme vs. word. Principles of morphemic analysis (into immediate constituents – IC and Ultimate Constituents - UC) Types of morphemes: the root morpheme the affixational morpheme free and bound morphemes allomorphes monomorphic/polymorphic words Structural types of words: simple, derived, compounds

Word-formation (W-F) W-F is the process of creating new words from the material available in the language according to certain structural and semantic patterns. Word – a principal , basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphological level (within paradigmatic relations) and the smallest on the syntactic level (within syntagmatic relations)

Word as a sign • Word as a sign is a two-faceted unit possessing form @ content, that is physical (sound or visual) form @ meaning. • Morpheme is the smallest meaningful indivisible two-faceted linguistic unit. • Word = root morpheme (+ affixes) • Root-morpheme is a semantic nucleus of a word, has no grammatical properties.

Morphemes • Free morphemes coincide with word-forms (boyfriend, pen-holder, fancy-ball, dress-maker) • Bound morphemes do not coincide with separate word-forms (theor-y, theor-etic-al, horr-or, horrible, horr-ify, tele-graph, tele-scope, micro-phone) • Pseudo-morphemes: retain, detain, contain, receive, conceive, deceive, perceive • Allomorphes are phonemic variants of the morpheme: please, pleasure, pleasant • Semi-affixes (intermediate position // roots and affixes: well-, self-, -man, ill-, half- etc. )

Affixational morphemes include a) inflections @ b) derivational morphemes Inflection is an affixal morpheme which indicates grammatical relationships: number (-s, -es), case (’s), gender (lioness ), tense (-s, -ed) Inflections have only grammatical meaning, are used to make wordforms. Derivational morpheme is affixal which when added to roots or bases modifies the lexical meaning of the word and changes its function. Affixation – the formation of words by adding derivational affixes. It is divided into suffixation @ prefixation, i. e. derivational affixes – suffixes @ prefixes. Suffixation is used for creating nouns and adjectives, Prefixation – for creating verbs

Dead and Living Affixes • Dead affixes are those which are no longer perceived as component parts of words, they have fused with the stem of the word and lost their independence completely. They can be singled out only etimologically (- d in deed, seed) • Living affixes are easily singled out from words -ness, -less, -dom, -hood, -able. –ible, -ly, -ful etc

Monomorphic @ polymorphic words • Monomorphic words are root-words, simple words, consist of one root: boy, girl, son, blue • Polymorphic words – one root-morpheme + derivational morpheme(s): acceptable, unfriendliness, changeability, husbandhood