Measuring and mapping cultures Part 2 Ronald

Measuring and mapping cultures Part 2

Ronald Inglehart 2

Traditional/Secular-rational values The contrast between societies in which religion is very important and those in which it is not. Societies near the traditional pole emphasize the importance of parent-child ties and deference to authority, along with absolute standards and traditional family values, and reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride, and a nationalistic outlook. Societies with secular-rational values have the opposite preferences on all of these topics. 3

Survival – Self-Expression Values The unprecedented wealth that has accumulated in advanced societies during the past generation means that an increasing share of the population has grown up taking survival for granted. Thus, priorities have shifted from an overwhelming emphasis on economic and physical security toward an increasing emphasis on subjective well-being, self-expression and quality of life. Value change progressing from constraint to choice is a central aspect of Human Development because this value change makes people mentally free, motivating them to develop, unfold, and actualize their inner human potentials. 4

The Two-Dimensional Value Space in Theory

The Two-Dimensional Value Space in Reality

Cultural Value Orientations Shalom H. Schwartz

Evolution of Cultural Value Emphases ØAll societies confront basic problems in regulating human activity ØSocietal responses to basic problems emphasize certain values and sacrifice others ØPrevailing value emphases in society express cultural orientations most directly (cf. Inglehart, Hofstede) ØValues are underlying conceptions of good & desirable (e. g. , success, justice, freedom, order)

Embeddedness-Autonomy • In Autonomous cultures people are autonomous, bounded entities. They are encouraged to cultivate and express their own preferences, feelings, ideas, and abilities, and find meaning in their own uniqueness. • There are two types of autonomy: Intellectual autonomy: own ideas and intellectual directions independently (broadmindedness, curiosity, creativity). Affective autonomy: affectively positive experience for themselves (pleasure, exciting life, varied life). • In embedded cultures people are entities embedded in the collectivity. • Meaning in life comes through social relationships, identifying with the group, participating in its shared way of life, and striving toward its shared goals. Maintaining the status quo and restraining actions that might disrupt ingroup solidarity or the traditional order. Important values are social order, respect for tradition, security, obedience, and wisdom.

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURE Ideal Individual / Group Relationship Individuals independent actors People: role players embedded in groups

Hierarchy - Egalitarianism one another as moral equals • Egalitarianism induces people to recognize who share basic interests as human beings. • People are socialized to act for the benefit of others as a matter of choice. • Important values: equality, social justice, responsibility, help, honesty. • Hierarchy relies on hierarchical systems of ascribed roles to insure responsible, productive behavior. • Unequal distribution of power, roles, and resources are legitimate and even desirable. • People are socialized to take the hierarchical distribution of roles for granted, to comply with the obligations and rules attached to their roles, to show deference to superiors and expect deference from subordinates. • Important values: social power, authority, humility, and wealth.

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURE Ideal way to elicit productive, cooperative, activity in society Hierarchical alloca-tion roles/resources legitimate/desirable Socialize: Others morally equal transcend selfish interests cooperate voluntarily

Mastery-Harmony • Harmony emphasizes fitting into the social and natural world, trying to appreciate and accept rather than to change, direct, or exploit. • Important values: world at peace, unity with nature, protecting the environment, and accepting one’s portion. • Mastery encourages active self-assertion in order to master, direct, and change the natural and social environment to attain group or personal goals. • Important values: ambition, success, daring, selfsufficiency, and competence.

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURE fit harmoniously, avoid change & self -assertion Regulate use of human and natural resources master, control, change through assertive action

Data and Sources Ø 77 cultural groups, 74 countries, N=55, 022 ØDominant cultural group: average of teachers & students in most Ø 45 value items with near equivalent meaning in withincountry analyses Øa priori items to index 7 orientations validated in culture level analysis

Cultural Map of World Regions EMBEDDEDNESS HARMONY EGALITARIANISM Muslim East-Central & Baltic Europe West AFFECTIVE AUTONOMY pe English Speaking odox INTELLECTUAL AUTONOMY E u ro Europe Or t h Latin America Eas t Prot/Cath South & South East Asia Middle East & Sub. Saharan Africa Co MASTERY nf uc HIERARCHY ia n

Basic Human Values S. Schwartz

Defining Characteristics of Basic Values ØShared Øbeliefs about the desirable Ømotivational goals Øtranscend specific actions and situations Øcriteria of judgment Øhierarchical order: priorities ØDifferentiated Øtype of motivation

Why are basic values important? Ømotivate choice of behavior--what we do Øjustify past behavior--why we did it Østandards to evaluate people & events-who and what we like, underlie our attitudes Ødirect attention and perception--what we notice Øcan serve as social indicators—reflect fundamental societal change

Deriving Universal Value Contents ØContent of values derives from basic goals people in all societies must pursue Øneeds of biological organism--e. g. hedonism Ødemands of social interaction--e. g. achievement Ørequirements for group survival--e. g. security ØPeople communicate to gain cooperation in pursuing their goals ØValues: Socially approved language of goals ØNot culture specific—based in pan-human requirements

Dynamic Roots of Value Structure Anxiety-based Prevention of loss Self-protection Personal Focus Self. Enhancement Anxiety-free Promotion of gain Self-expansion/growth Openness Hedonism Achievement Stimulation Power Self-Direction Conservation Self-Transcendence Security Social Focus Universalism Conformity Benevolence Tradition

Deriving Etic Values • List of items drawn from • • Past value questionnaires Lists of motivations in literature Texts of all major religions and philosophers Items to express each value concept • Collaborators invited to add items to tap values left out • Assess if added items yield other basic values or fall in expected basic values

Measurement: SVS In this questionnaire you are to ask yourself: "What values are important to ME as guiding principles in MY life, and what values are less important to me? " Your task is to rate how important each value is for you as a guiding principle in your life. Use the rating scale below: AS A GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN MY LIFE, this value is: opposed of to my not very supreme values important importance -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Before you begin, read the values, choose the one that is most important to you …. that is most opposed to your values…. Then rate the rest of the values. 1 EQUALITY (equal opportunity for all) 2 INNER HARMONY (at peace with myself) 3 SOCIAL POWER (control over others, dominance) 4 PLEASURE (gratification of desires)

Portrait Value Quest. Exemplary Items and Response Scale How much like you is this person? Not A little Somelike me what at all me like me Like me Very much like me It is important to him to have his own original ideas (Self. Direction) 1 2 3 4 5 6 It is important to him to have the money to protect his interests (Power) It is important to him that every person in the world have equal opportunities in life (Universalism) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Some Correlates of Value Priorities Ødelinquency, bullying, drug use Øvoting: liberal/conservative Øchoose to study econ. , business Øcharismatic leadership Ødeveloping leadership Øadopting technological innovations Øreadiness to work w/ out-groups Øauthoritarianism & nationalism Øegalitarian gender atts Ørisky sexual behavior SD ST ST/HE vs BE/CO UN/SD vs. SE/PO PO/AC vs BE AC/PO vs TR SD/UN vs SE/TR/PO ST/SD vs SE/TR/CO UN/ST vs PO/SE SD/UN vs PO/SE/CO SD/UN vs CO/TR UN BE HE AC TR CO PO SE ST/HE vs SE/CO/TR

More Correlates of Value Priorities ØEnvironmentally friendly behavior UN/BE vs PO ØIndependence of counseling clients SD/ST vs SE/TR/CO ØWorrying about meaning in own life ST/HE/PO vs UN/BE/TR ØSubjective well-being (+ affect) SD/AC/HE vs TR/SE/PO ØCreativity (verbal, artistic) SD/UN vs SE/TR/CO ØIdentifying with one’s nation CO vs SD ØReligious belief &behavior TR/CO/SE vs ST/HE/SD ØInterpersonal violence ØHelping and altruism SD ST PO vs UN/BE/CO UN BE HE AC TR CO PO SE UN/BE vs PO

Political Activism & Efficacy There are different ways of trying to improve things or to stop things from going wrong in [Israel]. During the last 12 months, have you done any of the following? Ø Contacted a politician, government or local government official Ø Worked in a political party or action group Ø Worked in another organisation or association Ø Worn or displayed a campaign badge/sticker Ø Signed a petition Ø Taken part in a lawful public demonstration Ø Boycotted certain products Ø Deliberately bought certain products for political, ethical or environmental reasons Ø Donated money to a political organisation or group Efficacy: How able are you to: Ø take an active role in a group involved with political issues? Ø make up your mind on political issues?

Value Predictions? Values

Refining the Values Theory: Why? ØTheory arbitrarily split circular continuum ØObjectives in modifying theory ØIncrease precision of explanation ØIncrease predictive power ØBetter capture the motivational circle of values Ø 10 values combined diverse facets (e. g. , security) Øe. g. , Measure in millimeters, not centimeters

Newly Discriminated Values Self-Direction Thought Exemplary Items: It is important to him/her… to develop his/her own opinions Action Power to plan his activities independently Dominance Resources to be the one who tells others what to do to be wealthy Face never to be humiliated Security Personal Societal to be personally safe and secure that the state is strong and can defend its citizens Conformity Rules to obey all the laws Interpersonal never to annoy anyone Humility to be humble Universalism Nature Concern to care for nature that the weak and vulnerable in society be protected Tolerance to accept people even when he/she disagrees with them Benevolence Caring to take care of people he/she is close to Dependability to be a dependable and trustworthy friend

Applications Ø 19 values permit detailed prediction & explanation of attitudes & behavior ØOther research topics with values (selected) Ø Relations to personality, subjective & objective well-being Ø Value change & transmission (generational, immigration, etc. ) Ø Person-environment fit; value congruence & social cohesion Ø Childhood development of value structure & priorities Ø Value measurement—instruments, reliability, invariance Ø Genetic bases of value priorities ØValues as mediators and moderators (e. g. ) Ø Mediate: Do values mediate effects of age on voting? Gender on violence? Ø Moderate: Does the association of patriotism with life satisfaction depend on the level of conformity-rules values?

Social axioms A Social Axioms Survey bases on interview protocols, and factor analysis of responses to this survey revealed a similar five-factor structure within each of five cultures: Hong Kong, Venezuela, the USA, Japan, and Germany.

“Social axioms are generalized beliefs about oneself, the social and physical environment, or the spiritual world, and are in the form of an assertion about the relationship between two entities or concepts. ” (Leung et al. (2002) • A typical social axiom has the structure - A is related to B, where A and B may be any entities, and the relationship between them may be causal or correlational. Social axioms differ from values, which assume the form, "A is good/desirable/important". Social axioms are also different from normative beliefs or assertions, which are prescriptive in nature. “We should help the poor” is a normative assertion, not a social axiom. • Some examples of social axioms: • • People keep from lying only for fear of being exposed. All is sold and bought in this world. There do not exist women (men) whose sympathies cannot be won. Great knowledge is acquired by little. Being flexible in life is an indication of intelligence. Every person needs an approach of his or her own. A way out can be found in any situation.

Universal model of Social Axioms (Bond, Leung et al, 2004) Detection of deception Social Cynicism Fate Control Survival and adaptation Problem solution Search for meaning Reward for Application Social Complexity Religiosity

1. Social Cynicism refers to a negative view of human nature, a view that life produces unhappiness, that people exploit others, and a mistrust of social institutions. 2. Social Complexity refers to the belief in multiple ways of achieving a given outcome, and agreement that human behavior is variable across situations. 3. Reward for Application refers to a general belief that effort, knowledge, and careful planning will lead to positive results.

4. Spirituality (subsequently renamed Religiosity in Leung & Bond, 2004) refers to a belief in the reality of a supreme being and the positive functions of religious practice. 5. Fate Control refers to a belief that life events are predetermined and that there are ways for people to influence these fated outcomes. These five, orthogonal dimensions of social axioms have been confirmed, and their constituent, defining items established in 41 national groups (Leung & Bond, 2004).

Social axioms dimensions 1. Factor 1 Dynamic Externality combines items from four of the factors previously identified across cultures at the individual-level: reward for application (10 items), religiosity (8 items), fate control (2 items), and social complexity (1 item). There are elements of religiosity and fate in this factor, which give rise to the label “externality”, but the emphasis on effort and control gives a dynamic quality to this construct. 2. Factor 2 is defined by 11 items, and is labeled Societal Cynicism, because all of them are from the individual-level factor of social cynicism. As constituted by these sets of 21 and 10 items, these two factors correlated with each other at a low level, r(39)=. 21, ns.

Societal cynicism associates with: • a larger number of persons per room, higher growth competitiveness, long-term orientation, more alcohol consumption, less voter turnout, more frequent access to the internet. lower job satisfaction, lower satisfaction with one’s company, lower life satisfaction, lower hedonic balance (positive affect minus negative affect), • and a faster pace of life • • •

Societal cynicism • lower level of conscientiousness (a factor in the big-five personality model concerning with competence, order, dutifulness, self-discipline, deliberation, and the will to achieve); • a rejection of the view that leadership is based on charisma and values, and team-orientation, • an acceptance of self-protective leadership and of autonomous leadership. • more disagreement within in-groups, • a stronger belief in exerting an amount of effort that is proportional to the pay received, • lower church attendance, • lower achievement via conformity.

Dynamic Externality Countries higher in dynamic externality have 1. higher daytime temperature, 2. more males than females in the population, 3. higher age dependence ratio (a proportionally larger nonworking population), 4. higher average number of people per room, 5. higher population growth rate, 6. lower life expectancy, 7. higher adult illiteracy rate, 8. lower level of human development, 9. lower human rights observance

Dynamic Externality (cnt-d) 1. lower relative status of woman, 2. lower political rights and civil liberties, 3. less unemployment, more work hours per week, 4. a lower percentage of GDP spent on education and on health, 5. lower alcohol consumption, 6. lower capacity for reducing human vulnerability by means of human sustenance and environmental health, 7. lower social and institutional capacity for environmental sustainability, 8. lower voter turnout rate, and fewer TV receivers per 1000 inhabitants. This profile suggests that dynamic externality is generally related to less favorable educational, social, and political development, even after its already lower level of economic development has been controlled for.

Scatter plot of nations as a function of their dynamic externality and societal cynicism