LEXICOLOGY — SUMMARY SGU — SUMMARY ON

LEXICOLOGY - SUMMARY SGU

- SUMMARY ON FINAL TEST Style: Formal vs. informal British and American English Words ICs Word formation

LANGUAGE STYLE INFORMAL STYLE

INFORMAL STYLE • Colloquial words • Slang • Dialectism • Vulgarisms

Formal style • Learned words • Archaic and poetic words • Technical terms or professional Terminology • Barbarisms

INFORMAL STYLE • is used in one’s immediate circle: family, relatives, or friends. • One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home. • Relaxed, free-and-easy, familiar and unpretentious.

• Consequently, the choice of words is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the speaker’s educational and cultural background, age group, and his occupational and regional characteristics.

Which style is it? 1. “where ya going ? ” “to school” INFORMAL STYLE

2. Should you require any assistance, please feel free to contact us. FORMAL STYLE

3. The company laid him off because he didn’t work much. INFORMAL STYLE

4. Mind your own business! INFORMAL STYLE

5. Dear Sir or Madam, I should be grateful if you would send me information about the regulations for admission to the Hall school of Design. Could you also tell me the school arranges accomodations for students? Yours faithfully, Allan Parker FORMAL STYLE

6. B is A’s boss. A needs to leave work early today to see the doctor and approaches B, who is working at his or her desk. FORMAL STYLE

7. A and B are good friends. A has just finished moving into a new house and wants to invite B over to celebrate. INFORMAL STYLE

Colloquial words v Colloquial words (=colloquialisms) are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of literary colloquial words. v Colloquialisms are used in everyday conversational speech by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups.

Colloquial words • However, in modern fiction, informal words are not restricted to conversation in their use, but also frequently appear in descriptive passages, when the author wants to create an intimate, warm, informal atmosphere. • Here are some more examples of literary colloquial words: • e. g pal, chum (= friend) bite, snack (=meal) mum, mummy (=mother)

Colloquial words q. Shortenings and verbs with post-positional adverbs are numerous among colloquialisms. qe. g vexam (= examination) vfridge( = refrigerator) v. Photo (=photocopy) vprep( preposition) vto make up vto do away vto turn in (= to go to bed)

Colloquial words • Literary colloquial words are to be distinguished from familiar colloquial and low colloquial. • The borderline between the literary and familiar colloquial is not always clearly marked. – E. g: doc (for doctor), hi (for how do you do), ta-ta (for good-bye) shut up (for keep silent), beat it (for go away).

Colloquial words Ø It is noted that some students misunderstand the term “ colloquial” and consider it “ conversational”. This misconception may lead to embarrassing errors, because colloquialism should even be avoided in formal conversations or in reports. Ø It is important that students associate these words with informal, relaxed situations.

What is slang? • Slang; A set of new, very informal words used in private conversation language. All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind or amusing joke. Most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a coarse, mocking, cynical colouring.

How many types of slang? +Special slang words *Jargonisms(students’slan g, political slang…) *Cant(criminal world +General slang words

why do people use slang? • To be picturesque, arresting, striking • To be different from others • To avoid the tedium of outmoded hackneyed "common" words. • To demonstrate one's spiritual independence and daring • To sound "modern" and "up-to-date".

smackers Foldable stuff moolah Cop= policeman notes readies money cash dough Hoofer=dancer

LEARNED WORDS w. Are mainly associated with the printed page. w. Poetry, fiction, diplomatic documents and letters are their resources. w. Educated people use them naturally in everyday speech. Excessive use of learned words in conversations may lead to official, inelegant manner; create an absurd and ridiculous effect.

Learned words are mostly polysyllabic ones of Latin, Greek or French. Most of them have been adapted to the English phonetic system, but some continue to sound foreign. w. French and Latin were once the language of the English belonging to the ruling or upper class in the English society. Carry out (= do) The experiment was carried out yesterday. Investigate (= look into) Safety officers are investigating the problem at the moment.

Different styles between informal & formal English • I’m sorry but … • We regret to inform you that … • I’m happy to say that … • We have pleasure in announcing that … • If you lose it, then contact • Any lost of this document should be reported us as soon as possible immediately.

Archaic and poetic words Are words that now go out of use Because of The advance changes in in human knowledge the social system Development of culture

e. g. Betwixt = Between Ex: "You shall see, as I have said, great difference betwixt our Bohemia and your Sicilia” (The Winter's Tale-Shakespeare) Aye/ Yea = Yes Ex: The world is not aye Twain = Two

• They are moribund, already partly or fully out of circulation, rejected by the living language. “Partly moribund” because they may exist in historical novels when authors want to create a particular period atmosphere, or in poetry which is rather conservative in its choice of words.

e. g. Morn (=Morning); Moon (=Month); Errant (=Wandering); Eve (=Evening) Damsel (=Girl) Sometimes, an archaic word may undergo a sudden survival e. g. Kin (=Relatives) now current in American usage. “Did you have kin from here? ”

There are some rules when you write letter or essay: l. Use appropriate punctuation l. Avoid common colloquial words and expression l Don't use contractions l. Try to avoid the first and second person l. Don't start a sentence with condinating conjunction l. When referring to the number of countable objects, use words rather than figures when the amount is less than twenty

Speaking formal English l Be aware of the parts of speech. English speakers commonly replace adverbs with adjectives in casual speech l Use correct grammar l Choose precise vocabulary words, and avoid the word "got. l Avoid using idiom Formal words may relate to prossional communication 3/19/2018

Variations in British and American English 1. Variation in pronunciation: a) In the vowel sounds: British English candidate [I] Delegate holiday [I] tomato [a] Fragile [a. I] Missile Pasteurisation Crystallisation American English candidate [e. I] delegate holiday [e. I] tomato [e. I] fragile [I/∂] Missile Pasteurization Crystallization

b) In the stress and vowels: British English garage Aristocrat Laboratory Capillary Centenary Phenomenon Pentagon Territory Auditory stationary secretary advertisement American English garage Aristocrat Laboratory Remark: AE Capillary prefers the Centenary double stress Phenomenon Pentagon Territory Auditory stationary secretary advertisement

c) In the stress: BE dic`tate ro`tate `bourgeois `frontier ‘mid`day ‘beef`steak `come`in `go a`head AE `dictate `rotate `bour`geois fron`tier `mid’day `beef’steak Come`in Go a`head

2. Variation in spelling: BE AE Colour Centre Advertise Defence traveller Color Center Advertize Defense traveler

BRITISH ENGLISH AMERICAN ENGLISH REMARK a) colour favour, labour, humour color Favor Labor humor b) centre theatre, litre center 2) “l” is double in AE words theater, liter with the stress on the last syllable. e. g. enroll, fulfill 1) Americanisms have a tendency to make the spelling easier.

c) traveller traveler 3) The endings -pl-l of verbs marvellous marvelous (with stress on the first woollen woolen syllable), are double in BE (single in AE) before –ed/ing. But: skilful, Skillful, e. g. `worshipped, `labelled fulfill (BE), `kidnaped, `leveled (AE) d) advertise organise e) defence But : to practise advertize organize defense pratice (n, v)

f) Miscellaneous - aeroplane - dialogue - cheque - draught - gauge - kerb - tyre - gaol - pyjamas - plough - judgement - airplane - dialog - check - draft - gage - curb - tire - jail - pajamas - plow - judgment

3. Variation in grammar: a) Verbs British English • Prefers irregular form of P 1, P 2 -burnt -dreamt • But: proved (P 2 of to prove); got (P 1, P 2 of to get) American English • Prefers regular form of P 1, P 2 -burned -dreamed • But: proven (P 2 of to prove); gotten (P 2 of to get)

b) The word-order in words of river, valley , lake…. British English American English River Thames River Clyde University of London Mississippi River Hudson River Harvard University

c) In the use of preposition – adverbs British English to fill out (the blank) outside (the house) to meet ( someone) To win To protest against To battle with American English to fill in (the blank) outside of (the house) to meet up (someone) To win out To protest To battle

d) Miscellaneous BE to help + to infinitive TO+ indirect Object (passive voice) E. g. A letter was sent to Mary. AE to help + bare infinitive without to + indirect Object (passive voice) A letter was sent Mary.

Remarks: American people have a tendency to use very easy going way, for their convenience, to express themselves. So they tend to use conversion, blending, or clipping in their daily speech. E. g: To chair a meeting To vacation An athletic meet Medicare (medical + care) Slanguage (slang + language) Ad (advertisement) Natch (naturally)

Besides, they also prefer short forms of words: E. g: I been, I done, I seen (= I’ve been, I’ve done, I’ve seen) Go bring the paper back (=go and bring…) I sure will help (=it surely will help) Drive slow (=drive slowly) You gotta go (you’ve got to go)

4. Variation in vocabulary: a) There are quite a lot of words denoting the same object or notion, but having different forms in BE and AE E. g. Cinema (BE) Chemist Goods Movie (AE) Druggist freight

The following is a list of BE words. Use a dictionary to find their AE equivalents. BE Railway Sweet(s) Pavement Roadway Petrol Lift Flat AE railroad candy sidewalk subway gas/ gasoline elevator apartment, flat, studio

BE Luggage Maize Tap Shop Tube, underground Tin (opener) AE baggage corn faucet shop/ store subway can

BE Postman Lorry (bank) note Return ticket AE mailman, mail/letter carrier truck/ semi/ tractor bill round- trip Car park Dustbin garden parking lot garbage/ trash can yard

b) However, there are words that do exist in both BE and AE, but bear different meanings: E. g. billion BE Million millions 1012 AE Thousand millions 109 Prep school BE Elementary school preparing for entering school AE Private school preparing for entering institute or university

Other words of the same type are: corn, pavement, to guess, clerk, lunch, solicitor, subway, workhouse c) There also British and American set expressions: BE AE To take the bun To beat about the bush To take the cake To beat around the stump

A lot of American set expressions appear to reflect the history of American life, tradition, features E. g. to be at bat Fireside chat Dark horse

Exercise II. 3 (P. 22) AE BE eraser rubber Antena /aerial Band – aid bill/check Bathrobe cookie bureau plaster bill (at a restaurant) bathgown biscuit cookie

AE janitor BE caretaker closet (for hanging clothes) wardrobe drapes curtains freeway truck kerosene diaper motorway lorry paraffin nappy

AE vest smokestack Purse BE waistcoat chimney handbag flashlight Torch Yard garden undershirt vest trailer caravan vacation holiday

WORDS A word is the smallest segment of speech that can be used alone, and at which pausing is possible. Ex: They call up their roommates. (Call up, roommates are two words, and no pauses are possible between the two elements of each word). There are three main classes of words: simple words, complex (or derived) words, and compound words.

1. Simple words are composed of a single free morpheme. Ex: high, table, university 2. Complex (or derived) words include either two bound morphemes, or a bound a free form. Ex: Two bound forms: televise, sentiment, consent A bound a free form: telephone, happiness dishonest, nonsense 3. Compound words have two or more free morphemes. Ex: Sweetheart, time-table, forget-me-not.

Sometimes, it is difficult to decide if the word is a compound word or a group of words (grammatical structure). There are three ways to see the difference. 3. a. Structural integrity: We cannot add any word to the middle of two morphemes of compound words. Ex: It is a greenhouse. (compound word) It is a green wooden house. (a group of words = grammatical structure)

3. b. Semantic criterion: The meaning of a compound word is idiomatic, not the sum of the meaning of the words (grammatical structure). Ex: He has an iron heart. (He is not kind) He has a heavy iron heart. (He has a heartshaped thing which is heavy) 3. c. Phonetic criterion: Most compound words have the main stress over the first word. A group of words (grammatical structure) has the main stress over the second word.

Ex: A swímming teàcher (a compound word) A swìmming teácher (a group of words) Notes: ‘ main stress. ` secondary stress. Abbreviation: S simple word Cx Complex word Cd Compound word Gs Grammatical structure

Indicate whether each italicized expression is a compound word (Cd) or a grammatical structure (Gs). Pay no attention to hyphens or spaces, for these are deceptive: 1. Jim’s new car is a hardtop. ______ 2. This jar has a rather hard top. ______ 3. It was a jack –in-the-box. ______ 4. There was a plant in the box. ______ 5. A hót dòg is not a hòt dóg. ______ 6. He has a dog in the manger attitude. ______

7. She has a strong hold on him. ______ 8. She has a stronghold in the Women’s Club. ______ 9. George found his father-in-law. ______ 10. George found his father in trouble. ______ 11. The bought it on the black market. ______ 12. The electricity went off, and we were caught in a black completely lightless, market. ______ 13. Agatha is a desígning teàcher. ______ 14. Agatha is a desìgning teácher. ______

For a view of the three classes of words, identify the following items with these symbols: S simple word Cx Complex word Cd Compound word Gs Grammatical structure Make the IC cuts for Cx and Cd. 1. Shárpshòoter _____ 2. Shàrp shóoter _____

3. act _____ 4. react _____ 5. rattlesnake _____ 6. passbook _____ 7. apparatus _____ 8. glowworm _____ 9. import _____ 10. ripcord _____ 11. unearth _____ 12. stick-in-the-mud _____

State whether the following groups of words are compounds or free word-groups, making use of different criteria: 1. Sweet voice 2. Sweet potato 3. White coffee 4. white-wash 5. White house 6. Hígh-prèssure

7. Hìgh tíme 8. Rèd méat 9. Red eyes 10. Red tap 11. Réd Cròss 12. Gold fish 13. Góld rìng 14. Gólden Àges 15. Golden wedding (50 th)

16. Golden hair 17. Gólden rùle 18. Green eyes 19. Green horn (-house) 20. Green belt 21. Green door 22. Blue blood 23. sky-blue 24. blue-jacket (=sailor)

MORPHEMES Free and Bound morphemes + A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. Free morphemes are monomorphemic words and they can operate freely in the language. Ex: honest, possess, study, girl, danger 68

+ A bound morpheme cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word. Bound morphemes must combine with other morphemes. Ex: dishonest = dis (BM) + honest (FM) + A morpheme consists of: - Root/base - Stem (if there is any affix) - Affix (Prefix is added to the beginning of a word and a suffix is added to the end of a word). 69

Exercises 1. How many morphemes are there in each of the following words: - Table - Television - Ceiling - Writing - Blackboard - Underground - Country - Hospital - River - Printer

- Seaside - Honeymoon - Typewriter - Basketball - Table-tennis - Backpack - Building - Sweater - Profit - Sailor - Southwest - Asian - Americans - Helpers - Manufacturers - Jackfruits - Newspapers - Swimming-pools - Railways - Indonesia

Underline the base/root in the following words: - Seaside - Southwest - Honeymoon - Asian - Typewriter - Americans - Basketball - Helpers - Table-tennis - Manufacturers - Backpack - Jackfruits - Building - Newspapers - Sweater - Swimming-pools - Profit - Railways - Sailor - Indonesia 72

Analyze the stem in the following words: - Seaside - Southwest - Honeymoon - Asians - Typewriter - Americans - Basketball - Helpers - Table-tennis - Manufacturers - Backpack - Jackfruits - Building - Newspapers - Sweater - Swimming-pools - Profits - Railways - Sailor - Indonesians 73

Analyze the suffix in the following words: - Bananas - Southwestern - Honeymoons - Asians - Typewriter - Americans - Basketballs - Helpers - shopping - Manufacturers - Backpacks - Jackfruits - Buildings - Newspapers - Sweaters - Swimming-pools - Profits - Railways - Sailor - Indonesians 74

Analyze the prefix in the following words: - Underline - Southwestern - Honeymoons - Subcontinent - impossible - Non-American - Basketballs - Anti-fascism - Dehydrate - Hillside - Backpacks - Jackfruits - Overcook - Newspapers - Sunday - Swimming-pools - Surplus - Railways - Sailboat - Telescope 75

Which morpheme is derivational/inflectional? - Underlines - Southwestern - Honeymoons - Subcontinents - impossible - Non-American - Basketballs - Anti-fascism - Dehydrates - Hillsides - Backpacks - Jackfruits - Overcooks - Newspapers - Sundays - Swimming-pools - Surplus - Railways - Sailboats - Telescopes 76

Write the meaning of the prefixal morphemes: 1. defrost 2. demigod 3. diacid 4. disappear 5. hypermarket 6. maltreat 7. monologue 8. Nonstop 9. rewrite 10. subway

Write the meaning of the suffixal morphemes: 1. writer 2. refugee 3. handful 4. solution 5. socialism 6. victory 7. importance 8. homeless 9. Chinese 10. greatly

IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS Immediate constituents are any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger meaningful unit. Four sorts of morphemes – bases, prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are put together to build words. When we analyze a word, we usually divide a word into two parts of which it seems to have been composed. Ex: un gentle man ly 79

IC division: + If a word ends in an inflectional suffix, the first cut is between this suffix and the rest of the word. Ex: develop s + One of the IC’s should be, if possible, a free form. A free form is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. Ex: enlarge ment NOT en largement in dependent NOT independ ent 80

+ The meanings of the IC’s should be replaced to the meaning of the word. Ex: teach er NOT tea cher The ultimate constituents are the morphemes of which the word is composed. 81

Give the morphematic division (root, prefix, suffix) of these words: 1. unpredictable 2. cooperation 3. multidimensional 4. leadership 5. Impression 6. Forecast 7. Fortune-teller 8. Discovery 9. Undercooked

Why are a and an called allomorphs? - A and an mean “one”. A stands before singular countable noun beginning with consonant sounds. An stands before singular countable noun beginning with vowel sounds. So they are phonologically conditioned allomorphs in complementary distribution.

Why are the forms of BE conjugated in present simple called allomorphs? - The forms of BE conjugated in present simple are AM, IS and ARE. They have the same meaning. AM follows the first person singular, IS follows the third person singular and ARE follows the second person both singular and plural and the third person plural. So Am, IS and ARE are morphologically conditioned allomorphs in complementary contribution.

Processes of word formation 1. Compounding is the joining of two or more words into a single word. Compounds may be written as one word (without a hyphen or a space), as a hyphenated word (with a hyphen), or as two words (with a space). Ex: sunflower, school-girl, high school, skateboard, whitewash, cat lover, self-help, red-hot, etc. 85

2. Derivation, conversion or functional shift Derivation is the forming of new words by combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words. Ex: teacher, re-ask, abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-cook, etc. Zero derivation: (also called conversion or functional shift): Adding no affixes; simply using a word of one category as a word of another category. Examples: Noun-verb: comb, sand, knife, butter, referee, proposition. 86

Stress shift: no affix is added to the base, but the stress is shifted from one syllable to the other. With the stress shift comes a change in category. Noun Verb Noun Adjective cómbine combíne cóncrete concréte ímplant implánt ábstract abstráct réwrite rewríte tránsport transpórt Affixation: adding a derivational affix to a word. Ex: abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-cook. 87

3. Clipping or contraction Clipping is the forming of new words by cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand for the whole. Ex: laboratory lab dormitory dorm brother bro professional professor prof. mathematics math 4. Acronymy or abbreviation Acronymy is the forming of new words from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words. 88

Ex: MP: military police/member of parliament TOEFL: Test of English as a foreign language radar: radio detecting and ranging NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian countries 89

5. Blending or mixture Blending is the forming of new words by joining the first part of one word with the last part of another word. breakfast + lunch brunch smoke + fog smog motor + hotel motel television + marathon telethon modulator + demodulator modem Spanish + English Spanglish 90

6. Back-formation or reversion Back formation is the forming of new words from the one that looks like its derivative. Ex: beggar to beg editor to edit resurrection to resurrect enthusiasm to enthuse burglar to burgle hamburger 91

7. Adoption of brand names as common words (coinage/invention/neologism): a proper name becomes the name for the item or process associated with the name. The word ceases to be capitalized and acts as a normal verb/noun (i. e. takes inflections such as plural or past tense). The companies using the names usually have copyrighted them and object to their use in public documents, so they should be avoided in formal writing (or a lawsuit could follow!) Examples: xerox, kleenex, Cola, 7 up. 92

8. Onomatopoeia or sound imitation or reduplication: words are invented which (to native speakers at least) sound like the sound they name or the entity which produces the sound. Ex: hiss, sizzle, cuckoo, cock-a-doodle-doo, buzz, beep, ding-dong. 9. Borrowing: a word is taken from another language. It may be adapted to the borrowing language's phonological system to varying degrees. 93

Ex: tomato (from indigenous languages of the Americas), sushi, taboo (from Pacific Rim languages), macho, spaghetti, psychology, telephone, physician, education (from European languages), yam, banana (from African languages). 10. Antonomasia or words from names: The formation of a common word from the name of a person or place. Ex: sandwich, champagne 94

11. Isolation on word formation: a new word is obtained by isolating the plural form which is then with its own particular meaning. Ex: colours (flags), glasses (spectacles) Conclusion: English speakers coin new words every day. We can find them in newspapers, magazines or daily speech, but to use them, we should be more careful because not all these are accepted in standard English. 95

Assignment 6

Which process is used to form the following words? 1. user 2. overcrowded 3. classroom 4. DRV 5. footstep 6. buzz 7. mew 8. read 9. gas

10. VIP 11. Amerindian 12. denim 13. roar 14. medicare 15. memo 16. daybreak 17. exporter 18. ad 19. care 20. Tom

SAMPLE TEST I. For a view of the three classes of words, identify the following items with these symbols: (2 ms) S simple word Cx Complex word Cd Compound word Gs Grammatical structure 1. generation 2. classroom 3. singing 4. non-government 5. whitewash 6. dehydration 7. hot dog 8. microwave 9. ebook 10. beautiful girls

1. Generation: Cx 2. classroom: Cd 3. singing: Cx 4. non-government: Cx 5. whitewash: Cd 6. dehydration: Cx 7. hot dog: Cd 8. microwave: Cx 9. ebook: Cx 10. beautiful girls: Gs

II. Give the informal words/phrases/clauses for the following: (2 ms) enter, commence, however, later, employer, sleep-walker, get, people say, they reported, one after the other.

enter – go in(to) commence - begin however - but later - subsequently employer - boss sleep-walker - somnambulist get - obtain people say – it is said they reported – it was reported one after the other – at regular intervals

III. Name the word formation process of each of the following words: (2 ms) 1. textbook 2. play 3. UNESCO 4. handful 5. smog 6. rattle 7. Alex 8. TV 9. Mon 10. Singlish

1. textbook: Compounding 2. play: Back-formation 3. UNESCO: Acronymy 4. handful: Derivation 5. smog: Blending 6. rattle: onomatopoeia 7. Alex: Clipping 8. TV: Acronymy 9. Mon: Clipping 10. Singlish: Blending

IV. The following is a list of AE words. Find their BE equivalent: (2 ms) 1. lawyer 2. elevator 3. drugstore 4. high school 5. school 6. bill 7. The Senate 8. estrogen 9. fender 10. ballpoint

1. Lawyer - solicitor 2. elevator - lift 3. Drugstore – chemist’s 4. high school – secondary school 5. School - faculty 6. bill - note 7. The Senate - The House of Lords 8. Estrogen - Oestrogen 9. Fender – mudguard/wing 10. Ballpoint – biro/ball point

V. Analyze the ICs of the following words: (2 ms) Americans, anti-fascism, receptionist, savings, collaboration, counterpartner, managers, dehydration, liners, humanities.

Americans anti-fascism receptionist - Initally, the base is “Americ”. Then we add suffix “an” to have “American” and then “Americans”. - Fascist is the base. A suffix is added to make up “fascism”. Finally, a prefix is added to have “antifascism”. - The base is receive. Then suffix “tion” is added to make up “reception”. At last “ist” is added.

savings collaboration counterpartner - The base is “save” that is added with suffix “ing”. Finally, “s” is added. - “Labor” is the root. “Co” is added to have “collabor”. Suffix “ate” is added to make up a verb. A noun is made with suffix “ion”. - “Part” is the base. “Part” is added with “er”. The prefix “counter” is added finally.

managers dehydration liners humanities - The base is “mange”. Suffix “er” is added and “s” is added at last. - “Hydrate” is the base. “Dehydrate” is a verb and “ion” is added to make a noun. - The root is “line”. Suffixes “er” and “s” are added. - “Human” is the root. Suffix “ity” is added. Plural suffix “s” is added at last.

Good luck!