Lexicography Lecture 2 Lexicography is theory and

Lexicography Lecture 2

Lexicography is theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. It is the oldest part of lexicology. In Lexicology, word is a part of the system. In Lexicography word is an individual unit in respect of its meaning and use from the practical point of its use by the reader of the dictionary for learning the language or comprehending texts in it or for any other purpose. The lexicographers are mostly guided by the principle of convenience in retrieval of the data and arrange words usually in alphabetical order.

Practical lexicography is the art or craft of writing dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analysing and describing the semantic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language (metalexicography). General lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i. e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i. e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields. Corpus-based lexicography deals mainly with compiling various electronic corpora for conducting investigations in different linguistic fields. Computational lexicography deals with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of electronic dictionaries.

Dictionary making Recording / Fieldwork Editing / Description Publishing / Presentation Dictionary research Dictionary history Dictionary research Dictionary typology Dictionary structure Dictionary use other Lexicography

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dictonarius was used for the first time in 1225 by the poet and grammarian Joannes de Garlandia, or John of Garland(e) (1195 - 1272)

Old English Period 600 -700 AD glosses of religious books the Leiden Glossary the Epinal Glossary the Erfurt Glossary the Corpus Glossary (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge).

British Lexicography 15 th century – bilingual (Latin –English, English – Latin, English – French, English – German) dictionaries Robert Cawdrey, A Table Alphabetical of Hard Usuall English Wordes (1604) John Bullokar, An English Expositor (1616) Henry Cockeram, English Dictionarie (1623)

1721 – the first etymological dictionary by Nathaniel Bailey 1775 – explanatory dictionary by Dr. Samuel Johnson 1784 - Zhdanov’s New Dictionary, English and Russian 1840 - the first Russian-English dictionary by James Banks 1883 -1885 - Aleksandrov’s Russian-English Dictionary for secondary schools

1884 – 1928 – A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED) 1933 – The Oxford English Dictionary The Shorter Oxford Dictionary (2 volumes) The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1 volume, only modern words, no examples) The Pocket Oxford Dictionary

American Lexicography 1798 – the first American dictionary by Samuel Johnson 1806 – by Noah Webster (introduced the new American spelling) 1828 – The American Dictionary of the English Language (two-volume Webster’s dictionary)

Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (DA) (1951) Dictionary of Jamaican English on historical principles (1967) Dictionary of South African English (1978) Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue, DOST (a 12 -volume dictionary compiled from 1931 to 2002) Scottish National Dictionary, SND (compiled from 1931 to 1976 with a New Supplement in 2005) Dictionary of Bahamian English (1982) Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage (1996)

The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (1963) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978) Collins Cobuild Dictionary of the English Language (1987)

Types of Dictionaries Thing-books vs. word-books: Encyclopaedic (words of designative character) – extensive extralinguistic information Linguistic (all words of the language) – spelling, pronunciation, meaning, examples of use

CAT (family Felidae) any of a group of carnivorous mammals that includes the true cats—lion, tiger, jaguar, leopard, puma, and domestic cat—and the cheetah. Cats typically have soft fur often strikingly patterned. See also domestic cat. The history of the cat family can be traced through the fossil record to the Late Eocene Epoch cat [kæt] 1. small , domestic, fur-covered animal often kept as a pet, to catch mice, etc. (=wild cat) any animal of the group that includes tigers, lions, panthers and leopards. Bell the cat see bell (2). Let the cat out of the bag see bag (1). Like a cat on hot bricks - very nervous or jumpy…

Overlapping of the information the word origin in encyclopedic dictionaries; the encyclopedic definitions in linguistic dictionaries; encyclopedic parts (appendices) in linguistic dictionaries, e. g. geographical names, names and dates of birth and life of famous people. American dictionaries tend to be encyclopedic; British dictionaries tend to exclude the extralinguistic information from the entries.

Most well-known encyclopedias: The Encyclopedia Britannica (in 24 vols. ) The Encyclopedia Britannica Macropedia and Micropedia The Encyclopedia Americana (in 30 vols. ) Collier’s Encyclopedia (in 24 vols. )(for teachers and students) Chamber’s encyclopedia (family type reference book) Everyman’s Encyclopedia (for all-round use). Specialized encyclopedias : Oxford Companion to English Literature, the Oxford Companion to Theatre, Cassell’s Encyclopedia of World Literature, etc.

Types of linguistic dictionaries Criteria for classification: The nature (scope) of word lists: general (unrestricted) and restricted dictionaries. The kind of information: explanatory vs. specialized (pronouncing , etymological, ideographic dictionaries, etc). The language in which the information is given: monolingual vs. bilingual dictionaries. The prospective user, e. g. advanced learners of English; children, students, etc. Diachronic vs. synchronic Hard vs. soft dictionaries

Linguistic dictionaries General Explanatory Parallel Specialized Synonyms Antonyms Neologisms Slang Pronouncing Phraseological Collocations Word-frequency

Explanatory dictionaries Deal with the form, usage and meaning of lexical units. Synchronic vs. diachronic presentation of word meanings: from basic to derived vs. from historically earlier to those that appeared later, e. g. table ‘a piece of furniture’ / ‘a slab of stone’. Diachronic: NED (The New English Dictionary on Historical Principles); SOD (The Shorter Oxford Dictionary on Historical Principles) Synchronic: COD (the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English); Webster dictionaries; Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (COBUILD – Collins Birmingham University International language database

Translation dictionaries The New English-Russian Dictionary. (In 3 vols. ) Ed. by E. M. Mednikova & Ju. D. Apresjan (250 000 words) V. K. Muller. English-Russian Dictionary (53 000 words) A. M. Taube, A. V. Litvinova, A. D. Miller, R. S. Daglish. Russian-English Dictionary (34 000 words) English-Russian Dictionary ed. under general direction of A. I. Smirnitsky; A Phrase and Sentence Dictionary of Spoken Russian-English-Russian. N. Y. : Dover Publications. E. g. любопытный - curious. Ишь какой любопытный, всюду свой нос сует. - He’s so damned curious, he sticks his nose in everywhere. Odd. Это любопытное совпадение. - It’s an odd coincidence.

Specialized dictionaries (i). Phraseological dictionaries. Dictionaries published abroad contain all sorts of “anomalies”: idioms, colloquial word groups, proverbs. An Anglo-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by A. V. Koonin. Phrasal verbs dictionaries. Longman Dictionary of Phrasal verbs. New Words dictionaries. The Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1 st ed. L. 1973). Slang dictionaries. Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English by E. Partridge; The Dictionary of American Slang by H. Wentworth and S. B. Flexner. Usage dictionaries : give advice to native learners about what is right and what is wrong. Dictionary of Usage and Abusage by E. Partridge: the difference between words, e. g. daily vs. diurnal; restrictions on the usage of certain words, e. g. responsible should be restricted to human beings; the meaning of “difficult” words, e. g. vicinage ‘neighbourhood’; words easily confused, e. g. venal and venial ; the use of certain constructions, e. g. split infinitive , etc.

Specialized dictionaries (ii) Frequency dictionaries: to make lists of words suitable as the basis for teaching English to foreign learners. M. West’s General Service List. Pronouncing dictionaries: record variants of contemporary pronunciation. English Pronouncing Dictionary by Daniel Jones. Etymological dictionaries: the word’s primary meaning; the immediate source of borrowing and its origin. Etymological English Dictionary by W. W. Skeat. Ideographic dictionaries. P. M. Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases.

Dictionary Entry 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The headword or lemma Its pronunciation Its word class (‘part of speech’) Its etymology Its definition Citations (examples of its use)

In thesaurus, there is no separate entry for each word. The word occurs simply as part of a list. The words are organized not on the basis of form but on the basis of meaning (not grammatical classes but semantic classes). Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases by Peter Mark Roget, a co-author of the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Thesaurus, begun in 1810 and published in 1852, contained about 40, 000 words. It has been re-edited several times since then in many different forms, paper or electronic, with additions and deletions but the same organization.

The English dictionary like the English Constitution, is the creation of no one man, and of none age, it is a growth that has slowly developed itself down the ages.

Modern Trends in English Lexicography Corpus linguistics deals mainly with compiling various electronic corpora for conducting investigations in different linguistic fields such as phonetics, phonology, grammar, stylistics, graphology, discourse, lexicon and many others. Computational linguistics is the branch of linguistics in which the techniques of computer science are applied to the analysis and synthesis of language and speech. The use of language corpora and the application of modern computational techniques in various lexicographical researches and in dictionary-making in particular, have stipulated the appearance of corpus (corpus-based) lexicography and computational lexicography.

Corpus-based lexicography Empirical data enables the linguists to make objective statements. A large and well-constructed corpus gives excellent information about linguistic features. The Bank of English is the corpus of 20 million words in contemporary English developed at the Birmingham University (COBUILD English Dictionary). The British National Corpus is a very large (over 100 million words) corpus of modern English, both spoken and written.

The British National Corpus Written part – 90 % Spoken part – 10 % Informative writing - 75 % Imaginative writing – 25% From books – 65 % From periodicals – 25% http: //www. natcorp. ox. ac. uk/

Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English [http: //quod. lib. umich. edu/m/micase/]

Electronic text archives Longman Corpus Network Longman Learner’s Corpus Longman Written American Corpus Longman Spoken American Corpus Spoken British Corpus

The use of corpora in dictionary-making practices gives a compiler a lot of opportunities: to produce and revise dictionaries, providing upto-date information; to give more complete and precise definitions; to keep on top of new words entering the language or existing words changing their meaning; to describe usage of particular words typical of particular varieties; to treat phrases and collocations more systematically; to register cultural connotations.

Computational lexicography deals with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of electronic dictionaries. On-line dictionaries: the Oxford English Dictionary Online the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary the Cambridge Dictionaries Online (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms, Cambridge Dictionary of American English, etc) the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language.

Electronic dictionaries the use of multimedia means; the navigable help indices in windows oriented software; the use of sound, animation, audio and visual elements as well as interactive exercises and games; the varied possibilities of search and access methods that allow the user to specify the output in a number of ways; the access to and retrieval of information are no longer determined by the internal, traditionally alphabetical, organization of the dictionary, but a non-linear structure of the texts; the use of hyperlinks which allow easily and quickly to crossrefer to words within an entry or to other words connected with this entry.

On-line dictionaries Oxford Dictionaries http: //oxforddictionaries. com The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary http: //www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary Cambridge Dictionaries On-line. http: //dictionary. cambridge. org Яндекс Словари http: //slovari. yandex. ru Dictionary Link. Free Online Dictionary, Translation and References Services http: // www. dictionarylink. com