LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION Lecture

LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION Lecture # 9

The typical problems with translation of words There is not an equivalent for the word in TL (at all, or in a certain meaning) Correspondence between the words of SL and TL is not full, i. e. the word in TL covers the meaning of its counterpart in SL only partly. Different meanings of a polysemantic word of SL may be rendered with different words in TL.

Monosemantic words (with one main meaning): parts of body (hand, foot, head, breast, etc. ) calendar terms (names of days of a week, months) natural objects (rivers, mountains, celestial bodies, etc. ) ties of relationship (son, daughter, father, etc. ) items in general use (plough, spade, rake, knife, etc. ) some names of animals (which are known in both SL and TL cultures).

The first (base) meaning of these words is clear and recognizable. Even they are used in metaphorical sense (in idioms, for example), this meaning is secondary, and may be easily cleared from the context: the right hand of fellowship to move mountains fount of wisdom mine of information big heart, etc. As usual, just these simple words (which are the most archaic in each language) are used very often figuratively.

Non-equivalent vocabulary and false equivalents Non-equivalent words name ideas and items which are absent in other culture and language; these ideas and items are characteristic for the culture A, but not present in the culture B; it means, that a word from the language A cannot be rendered with only one word in the language B; in general, these words are not so numerous.

The non-equivalent vocabulary concerns the following fields: technical terms specific items political, philosophical and scientific terms some for emotions and psychological conditions carburetor hooke syringe

Difficulties with appearance of new concepts (which were named with foreign words) may be illustrated by attempts of Vasiliy Trediakovsky (1703 -1769) to create the Russian counterparts for theses terms: «безместие» absurd (French absurdité) «бездействие» inertia (< inertie) «назнаменование» emblem (< emblème) «всенародный» epidemic (< épidémique) «внезапный» panic (< panique) «предверженная вещь» object (< objet) «жар исступления» enthusiasm (< enthousiasme) However, these equivalents were not absorbed with Russian.

There are some reasons for borrowings The foreign words are borrowed along with new items or ideas, so, they do not have counterparts in TL (in Ukrainian: політика, спортсмен, футбол, тунель, пальто, університет, корабель, театр, курорт, бухгалтер). These words help us specify an idea of a subject (in Ukrainian ‘джем’ – from English ‘jam’ – means a special sort of ‘варення’; ‘десерт’ — the sweet, usually last course of a meal; ‘госпіталь’ — medical institution for servicemen – from Latin hospitālis.

Therefore attempts to substitute these words with ‘true Ukrainian’ equivalents were unsuccessful: очник — instead of окуліст повитуха, баба пупорізка — instead of акушерка дрібноживцезнавець — instead of мікробіолог вухоносогорлянкознавець — instead of отоларинголог гоп'як — instead of пульс хробаковиця, хробакозапал — instead of апендицит горлянковиця — instead of ларингіт

Translation of the words with deep emotional connotations. For example, Ukrainian word «журба» is difficult to translate into English with one word: sadness, sorrow, grief, melancholy are not adequate translation; suggested translation may consists of more than one word: silent sorrow or thoughtful grief.

In one article about Africa is written: En Côte d'Ivoire existait une bourgeoisie de planteurs ou de transporteurs étroitement liée à la chefferie traditionnelle, de nombreux riches planteurs étant anciens chefs de canton. The question is: how to translate the word chefferie? In the dictionary we can find two definitions: 1) військово інженерний округ, район; 2) функції вождя (племені); рада вождів. The correct translation will be institution of the canton chiefs.

False equivalent is a word in TL which coincides fully or partly in phonetic or graphic form with its counterpart in SL, but differs from it in meaning (in spite of having the common etymology). For example, the word ‘artist’: In English (artist), French (artiste) and Spanish (artista) it means ‘a man of art’; In German (Artist) – ‘a variety or circus actor’; In Ukrainian (артист) – ‘an actor of theatre, cinema or circus’.

‘Academy’ in English: 1) an institution or society for the advancement of literature, art, or science; 2) a school for training in a particular skill or profession a military academy; 3) a secondary school: now used only as part of a name, and often denoting a private school; In Ukrainian: 1. an educational institution of the highest level; 2. a highest level scientific institution.

In English ‘academic’ (noun) means: a member of a college or university In Ukrainian: a member of a highest level scientific institution In English ‘ignorance’ is: lack of knowledge, information, or education; the state of being ignorant In Ukrainian: neglect, disregard

English ‘pathetic’ means: 1) evoking or expressing pity, sympathy, etc. ; 2) distressingly inadequate (from Greek πα θος – ‘suffering’, ‘grief’). Ukrainian ‘патетичний’ is ‘elated’, ‘elevated’. So, the translation of the sentence ‘He is pathetic!’ as «Патетична особистість!» is incorrect, but rather «Який він бідолашний!» або «Нещасний він!»

Similarly the English word of the Greek origin ‘sympathetic’ (συμπαθε ω – ‘compassionate’) means: 1) characterized by, feeling, or showing sympathy; understanding; 2) in accord with the subject's personality or mood; 3) showing agreement (with) or favour (towards). In Ukrainian it means: nice, attractive. sympathetic strike —страйк солідарності (але ніяк не «симпатичний страйк» sympathetic audience – прихильна аудиторія (але не «симпатична аудиторія»

In English the word ‘dramaturge’ and in German ‘Dramaturg’ means ‘a literary adviser on the staff of a theatre, film corporation, etc. , whose responsibilities may include selection and editing of texts, liaison with authors, preparation of printed programmes, and public relations work’; So, this word cannot be translated into Ukrainian as «драматург» , but as «режисер» (for the Ukrainian «драматург» in English the words ‘dramatist’ and ‘playwright’ may be used).

In the following case translation the German word ‘Dramaturg’ as «драматург» in Ukrainian would throw a reader into confusion: „Nun, einer der Dramaturgen dieses Volkstheaters war vor Jahren auf den Gedariken gekommen, die Gretchen-Tragödie aus dem „Faust" herauszuschälen und zur Aufführung zu bringen” It was impossible that ‘Volkstheater’ (‘amateur theatre’) had its own playwright!

Translation of the Ukrainian word ‘луна’ into Russian with the same word would be really ridiculous: Пішла луна гаєм (Тарас Шевченко, I, 1951, 6) Ого го о!. . Луна пішла тайгою (Олександр Довженко, I, 1958, 124) В країну смутку вітерець прилине І принесе мені луну розмови (Леся Українка, I, 1951, 97)

Lexical variants in translation Almost each word has several meanings which are reflected in dictionaries However, in some cases, none of these meanings can be used in translation: a translator should choose a different word or create a new phrase. For example, in translation from Aramaic the phrase [ מקדמין לשאל בשלמך miqaḏmī n liš’a l bišlēmā ḵ] literally is translated as “From the beginning to ask peace for you”.

In the Aramaic dictionary you can find several meanings of the word [qǒḏā m] – ‘beginning’, ‘front’, ‘east’; however, none of them fits the correct translation of this phrase. “They will greet you obligingly” or “They will wish you peace obligingly”. Translation of the sentence from G. de Maupassant “La bête à Maît' Belhomme” ‘La diligence du Havre allait quitter Criquetot’ «Гаврський диліжанс вирушав із Крікто» .

Rendering of words for specific national realities Germ. “Fachwerkhaus” How to translate this word into English? ‘Fachwerk house / building’, but not to translate it literally (false equivalent): ‘professionally built house’! Into Ukrainian: «фахверкова будівля / будинок» .

Germ. Giebelhaus / Giebel, French maison à pignon Proposed translation: “peaked roof house”, «гостроверхий дім» .

However, the Hebrew word ‘moshav’ ( )מושב in English is transliterated; or ‘farmer’s settlement’. Moshav is a cooperative settlement in Israel, consisting of a number of small farms. Into Ukrainian this word may be translated as «мошав» (transliteration) or «фермерське поселення» .

Another Hebrew word in English – ‘kibbutz, i. e. a collective agricultural settlement in modern Israel, owned and administered communally by its members and on which children are reared collectively (like a commune). A variant of translation: an agriculture commune; in Ukraine: «кіббуц» , «сільськогосподарська комуна» .

How to translate these words? Transliteration or partial transcription Periphrasis: to create a new word / compound word / phrase using morphological elements of TL Similarity: to use the word which means something similar but not identical (approximate meaning) Hiponymy: a specific word of SL is translated with a more general term (generalization).

Similarity: in translation from English and French into Ukrainian the addresses ‘sir’ and ‘miss’ / ‘monsieur’ and ‘madame’ are rendered as «пане» and «пані» . The Hebrew word המשלים [hammōšlī m] is rendered as «кобзарі» (!) in Ivan Ohienko’s translation of the Bible: «Тому й розповідають кобзарі…» (Числ. 21: 27).

Translation the Hebrew word [ התנינם hattanīnīm] in Gen. 1: 21 as «риби великі» (Ivan Ohienko’s translation); ‘great whales’ (KJV), ‘great creatures of the see’ (NIV).

Similarity and simplification: an approximate translation כסף סיגים מצפה על- חרש שפתים דלקים ולב-רע І. Огієнко: Як срібло з жужелицею, на горшкові накладене, так полум'яні уста, а серце лихе (Пр. 26: 23). П. Куліш: Що глиняна посудина, обтягнена нечистим сріблом, те саме бутні уста й злобнеє серце. Р. Турконяк: Що жужелиця з срібла на глинянім посуді, | те саме облесливі уста й зле серце. Угаритське spsg – «блискучий матеріал» , отже, כסף סיגים пропонується читати як « כספסגם מצפה як покритий глазур’ю» , отже: Як покритий глазур’ю глиняний глечик, так уста палкі, а серце лихе.

Burning lips and a wicked heart are like a potsherd covered with silver dross (Pro 26: 23 KJV). Like a coating of glaze over earthenware fervent lips with an evil heart. (Pro 26: 23 NIV). Like an earthen vessel overlaid with silver dross are burning lips and a wicked heart (Pro 26: 23 NAS). Smooth words may hide a wicked heart, just as a pretty glaze covers a clay pot. (Pro 26: 23 NLT).

Hiponymy: Both the Ukrainian word «хата» and Turkic ‘jurta’ are translated in English ‘house’. ‘Turban’, ‘cap’, and ‘fez’ are translated as ‘hat’.

Translation of phrases Phraseological units are (according to Prof. Kunin A. V. ) stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, “drink till all's blue”, “drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl)”, “as mad as a hatter (as a march hare)”). According to Rosemarie Gläser, a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotation, and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text.

Translation of different phrasemes Full idioms An idiom AB (that is, composed of the elements A ‘A’ and B ‘B’) is a full idiom if its meaning does not include the meaning of any of its lexical components: ‘AB’ ⊅ ‘A’ and ‘AB’ ⊅ ‘B’. Put something through its paces – ‘to test something thoroughly’ Go ballistic – ‘suddenly become very angry’ By heart – ‘remembering verbatim’ Bone of contention – ‘reason for quarrels or fights’

Idioms of SL should be corresponding idioms of TL: rendered by Germ. Haare auf Zähnen haben (lit. : ‘to have hair with teeth’) must be translated into English as ‘a sharp tongue’ and into Ukrainian «бути гострим на язик» . An example of wrong translation a passage from H. Heine: „. . . die schöne Marianne hat . . . jetzt noch alle ihre Zähne und nochimmer Haare darauf, nämlich aufden Zähnen“ was translated into Russian by P. Weinberg as «прекрасная Марианна сохранила все свои зубы и волосы на них» .

In some cases idioms of SL may translated with semi / quasi-idioms into TL: Cat my dogs! – «Отакої!» It rains cats and dogs – «Дощ як із відра!» All bunkum / moonshine – «Сон рябої кобили» After Buncombe, a county in North Carolina , alluded to in an inane speech by its Congressional representative Felix Walker (about 1820). Gall and wormwood – «В’їстися в печінки» , «Їдять його мухи» To be at sea – «Потрапити у глухий кут» “I am at sea, ” she said at last. “Lots of my generation are, I think. ” Cannot be translated as «Я на морі. . »

Germ. “Das ist mir Wurst" — «все одно» , «Раз, два – одна біда» „Krethi und Plethi" — «усяка наволоч» (the name for Indo-European tribes who served as hired warriors in the army of the king David in the Bible, 2 Sam. 8: 18) French „faire four" — «ускочити» , «опинитися на льоду» , «потрапити в халепу»

Semi-idioms An idiom AB is a semi-idiom if its meaning 1) includes the meaning of one of its lexical components, but not as its semantic pivot, 2) does not include the meaning of the other component and 3) includes an additional meaning ‘C’ as its semantic pivot: ‘AB’ ⊃ ‘A’, and ‘AB’ ⊅ ‘B’, and ‘AB’ ⊃ ‘C’. Private eye – private detective Sea anemone – predatory polyp dwelling in the sea To be an eyesore to smb / to be a pain in the neck to smb – to be in smb’s sight too often or for too long

Semi-idioms may be rendered in two ways: 1. Like ‘full’ idioms: an idiom of SL = idiom of TL 2. Literal translation (if possible) To be an eyesore to smb – «Як більмо в чиємусь оці» At daggers drawn – «На ножах» (ідіома) Bosom friend – «Щирий друг» To have the guts – «Мати сміливість» To flash into one’s mind – «Спало на думку» To know the ins and outs – «Знати ходи і виходи» Not breathe a word – «Не пробовкнутися / не видати таємниці» French „acheter chat en poche" or Germ. „die Katze im Sack kaufen" — «Купити кота в мішку»

The same approach can be used for proverbs: Equivalent translation: A friend in need is a friend indeed – «У біді пізнай приятеля» No losers, no winners – «Як боїшся — не роби, а зробивши — не бійся» Literal translation: Rolling stone gathers no moss – «Камінь, що котиться, не обростає мохом» (Людина, що часто переїжджає, немає приятелів). Road to hell is paved with good intentions – «Добрими намірами вимощена дорога в пекло» . Never troubles until troubles trouble you – «Ніколи не переймайся проблемами, аж поки вони не потурбують тебе» .

Adapted translation: Germ. „Eile mit Weile“ – «Поспішиш – людей насмішиш» (букв. «Поспішай з повільністю» ) „Les beaux esprits se rencontrent” – «Свій своєму брат поневолі» (букв. : «Чудові розуми / інтелекти зустрічаються» ).

Quasi-idiom or weak idiom An idiom AB is a quasi-idiom, or weak idiom if its meaning 1) includes the meaning of its lexical components, neither as the semantic pivot, and 2) includes an additional meaning ‘C’ as its semantic pivot: ‘AB’ ⊃ ‘A’, and ‘AB’ ⊃ ‘B’, and ‘AB’ ⊃ ‘C’. Fr. donner le sein à – ‘feed the baby by putting one teat into the mouth’ (пор. рос. «давать грудь ребенку» , але укр. «годувати грудьми» ) Eng. Start a family – ‘conceive a first child’ (в укр. немає відповідника; букв. «починати сім’ю» , тобто «зачати першу дитину» ). Barbed wire – ‘wire with barbs [fixed on it in small regular intervals]’ (пор. укр. «колючий дріт» ).

Compatibility of words in quasi-idioms: if the elements of phrases of SL combine in the same way in TL? Compatibility is almost identical: Backwards and forwards / to and fro – «туди й сюди» , «назад і вперед» . At the least – «принаймні» Again and again – «знову і знову» To take time – «забирати час» Not identical: On the second thought – «добре подумавши» As a matter of fact – «насправді ж» Keep smth. quiete – «тримати в таємниці щось»

Grammatical aspects of translation In some rare cases grammatical forms of ST and TL coincide; but in most of cases they do not. It is difficult to uniform the main patterns of translation and create some ‘standards’ for the most typical cases: the same grammatical form of SL may be translated in different ways in TL.

‘I expected the travellers to be here by this time’ – Я очікував, що мандрівники будуть тут до цього часу. Je le vois venir – Я бачу, що він іде. Ich sah ihn arbeiten – Я бачив, як він працював. In translation into Ukrainian we use relative clauses instead of the infinitive! Similar constructions with the infinitive: Diese Tätigkeit scheint ihm zu gefallen. II semble être content. He seems to be pleased with this business. Він, здається, задоволений цією справою. In the Ukrainian translation the infinitive is not used!

Asyndetic relative clauses in English: The books I have been reading. – Книги, які я читаю. This is the most interesting book I have ever read. – Це найцікавіша книга, яку я колись читав. In both cases the asyndetic relative clauses are translated into Ukrainian with syndetic clauses.

Grammatical differences between SL and TL A grammatical element in SL does not have its equivalent in TL (for example, an article, or the difference between a definite and indefinite articles – they are absent in Ukrainian). A grammatical element of TL does not have its counterpart in SL (developed system of verbal inflexions in Ukrainian – they are absent in English). Grammatical elements both in SL and TL coincide formally, but they have different functions.

A grammatical element in SL does not have its equivalent in. TL: an article In the title of the novel of T. Dreiser “An American Tragedy” indefinite article highlights a typical natures of the story. The Ukrainian translation of this novel is «Американська трагедія» (пер. І. Буше, Л. Смілянський, Л. Ященко) Similarly the title of the novel „Une vie“ (‘A Life’) by Guy de Maupassant is translated into Ukrainian as «Життя» , but another possible variant is «Історія одного життя» .

It is more difficult to translate an article from languages, where it has many functions In Greek the definite article means: as a demonstrative pronoun this one, that one: ὁ μὲν οὕτως ὁ δὲ οὕτως: ‘one after this manner, and another after that’ (1 Co 7: 7 KJV) as definite article, the, in a great variety of uses. in the function of vocative ὁ πατήρ: ‘O, Father!’

In translation indefiniteness of a noun can be expressed by the position of the word in the end of a sentence, and definiteness – in the beginning A man came round the comer. An der Ecke erschien ein Mann. Une femme sortit de la chambre. Із за рогу вийшов чоловік. The man still stood at the corner. Der Mann stand immer noch an der Ecke. La femme sortit de la chambre. Чоловік усе ще стояв на розі вулиці. Із кімнати вийшла жінка. Жінка вийшла із кімнати.

"The son was returning with even more success than the community had hoped for". «Син повертався на батьківщину навіть більш успішним, ніж від нього чекала родина» . "The women and children and «Жінки, діти і старі пішли… old men had gone. . . The Вітання завершилися – до greeting was over till the вечора» evening. . . „Der Schulwart klingelte zum «Економ подзвонив на обід zweitenmal Mittag". удруге» „Der Junge sagte ruhig. . . " «Хлопчик сказав спокійно…»

If an indefinite word is described (with a relative clause or a phrase), its equivalent can stand in the beginning: "Eine alte Frau in Nachtjacke öffneten die gegenüberliegende Tür, fragte ihn, wen er suchte". «Стара у нічній кофтині відчинила протилежні двері і запитала, кого йому треба» .

Translation of indefinite personal pronouns: English ‘one’ and ‘they’, French ‘on’, German ‘man’ may be translated into Ukrainian in three ways: with 1 -st plural ( «ми» ) with indefinite phrase ( «відомо» ) with 3 -d plural ( «кажуть» ) with 2 -d singular ( «пишеш» , «працюєш» ) on dit — «кажуть» on sait qu'il arrive — «відомо, що він прибуває» on t'a téléphoné — «тобі дзвонили» on reste dans son petit coin et l'on observe — «сидиш у своєму кутку й спостерігаєш» on n'est jamais si heureux ni si malheureux, qu'on croit — людина ніколи не буває ні такою щасливою, ні такою нещасною, як їй здається

man sagt — кажуть man pocht an die Tür — стукають у двері was man in der Jugend gelernt hat, kommt einem im Alter zugute — що вивчиш у молодості, те згодиться тобі й у зрілому віці man muß — необхідно, доводиться man soll — треба man kann — можна

A grammatical element of TL does not have hav its counterpart in SL Adverbial participle (дієприслівник) in Ukrainian: Уважно слухали селяни, занімівши в різних позах (Андрій Головко). This grammatical form may be used for an active participle in the meaning of another simultaneous action in English: Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. Насвистуючи сам собі, він ішов дорогою униз. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. Упустивши рушницю, вона підняла руки вгору.

Perfective participle (дієприкметник доконаного виду) may be used for non-defining relative clause: This beautiful ancient vessel, which was made by a skillful master, charmed him. Цей гарний стародавній глечик, зроблений вправним майстром, зачарував його. The gray castle, which was built at the time of the king Henry the Fifth, raised above the valley. Сірий замок, збудований ще за часів короля Генріха V, височів над долиною.

Diminutive and augmentative suffixes In Ukrainian are diminutive and augmentative suffixes: ок, ець, к (о), очок, чик, оньк (о), ун, усь(чоловічий рід); к (а), иц (я), очк (а), ичк (а), ун (а), ус (я)(жіночий рід); ц (е), а, ч (а), ен (я), еньк (о), ачк (о), ечк (о)(середній рід). ищ (е): носище, мостище, морозище, голосище, ручище, очище, дверище; иськ (о) (хлопчисько, дівчисько), уг (а), уган (злодюга, дідуган), ук (а) (звірюка, каменюка, зміюка) тощо.

There are not diminutive nor augmentative suffixes in English; diminutive suffixes are in German; in French they are used rarely. Diminutive and augmentative meanings may be expressed lexically (not morphologically) in these languages: Size: „klein", „groß", „ein wenig“ (Germ); „petit", „grand", „un peu“ (French); "little", "big“ (English). Endearment: „lieb", „nett“ (Germ. ); „cher", Joli“ (French); "dear", "pretty" (English). Or by the context.

When should we use these suffixes in translation from these languages into Ukrainian? When grammatical elements of SL coincides in meaning with the suffixes of subjective appraisal. If semantic and stylistic factors of a sentence, passage or context in general correspond with the meaning of these suffixes.

„Une robeŕ paillettes, des souliers bleus à paillettes aussi, des fleurs et des galons partout. . . " „Tout cela, il fallut encore que je le portasse dans des sacs de papier. . . " «Сукня з блищиками, блакитні черевички теж з блищиками, скрізь квіти і вишивка. . . » . «Усе це я знову мав нести у паперових мішечках. . . » .

Grammatical elements both in SL and TL coincide formally, but they have different functions. Indirect speech in English and French: He said he was ill. Il dit qu'il était malade. Ukrainian: «Він сказав, що хворий» , але не «Він сказав, що був хворий» .

Translation of proper names The first problem: most of proper names in Ukrainian, English, French, German and other European languages have the same origin – Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and Latin. These names were adopted from the Bible and early Christian tradition. The question is: we should use their Ukrainian equivalents or not? For example, the name John (English), Jean (French), Jan (Czech), Johann (Germ. ) and Іван (Ukrainian) originate from Hebrew [ יוחנן yōḥannā n] adopted trough Greek form Ιωα ννης.

Should we translate the name of the English king John Lackland (1166 -1216) as «Іван Безземельний» ? We do translate ‘Lackland’! If not, why do we use sometimes «Іванна Д’арк» (along with «Жанна Д’арк» ) for Jeanne d'Arc (1412 -1431)? Or «Іван Гус» (along with «Ян Гус» ) for Jan Hus (1369 -1415)?

The English ‘George’, French ‘Georges’, Germ. ‘Georg’ and Ukrainian «Георгій» / «Юрій» (Scandinavian variant) originate from the Greek name Γεώργιος (the name of St. George - Άγιος Γεώργιος). We render the name of George Washington as «Джордж Вашингтон» , but the symbol of England the medal of the same name as «Георгіївський хрест» (the second after Victoria Cross award of the United Kingdom).

Why ‘the Gospel of John’ (not Yohannan)? Why in Ukrainian we use both forms – «Євангеліє від Івана» та «Євангеліє від Іоанна» (Greek transliteration of the Hebrew name)? Why ‘St. James’ (not Ya’akob)? In Ukrainian «Святий Яків» , in Russian «Святой Иаков» (through Greek transliteration Ια κωβος). How to translate ‘The King James Bible’ – «Біблія короля Якова» чи «Біблія короля Джеймса» ?

There are not certain rules for translation of proper names. These are some general principals: Proper names are transliterated: Edwards Едвардс Maryland Меріленд Downing Street Даунінг Стріт Morning Star Морнінг Стар Intrepid Інтрепід (авіаносець) General Motors Corporation Дженерал моторс корпорейшн

Names of organizations, universities, institutions and projects are translated, if they do not contain proper names: UNO (United Nations Ordanization) – Організація Об`єднаних Націй European Union – Европейська Спільнота European Bank of Development and Reconstruction – Европейський Банк Розвитку і Реконструкції Council of Economic Advisers – Рада наукових консультантів International Association for Semiotic Studies – Міжнародна асоціація семіотичних досліджень School for International Training – Інститут міжнародної підготовки University of Technology Doc toral Program – Програма підготовки докторів наук Технологічного університету.

If the name contains anthroponym, it may be translated into two ways: including the word «імені» : William Jewell College – коледж iм. Вільяма Джуелла, John Gopkins University – університет ім. Джона Гопкінса; using genitive or nominative (in brackets): John Brown University – університет Джона Брауна, (університет "Джон Браун").

If the name consists of only common words, it may be translated : Red Sea – Червоне море Pacific Ocean – Тихий океан The United Kingdom – З'єднане Королівство If the name consists of proper and common words, we translate only the common part: North Dakota – Північна Да кота Admiralty Islands – Адміралтейські острови Strait of Gibraltar – Гібралтарська протока (або: протока Гібралтар) Richard the Lion Heart – Річард Левине Серце William the Conqueror – Вільгельм завойовник.

A common word is transliterated if it is wellknown for readers: Carson City – Карсон citі Kansas City – Канзас сітi. A common word is both translated and transliterated: Rocky Mountains – гори Poкi Маунтинс the Grand River – piкa Гранд Piвep Bull Lake – озеро Булл Лейк Firth of Clyde – затока Ферт оф Клайд Holly Loch – озеро Холі Лох.

Traditional translations: Texas – Техас, Mexico City – Мехіко Great Britain – Великобританія (зараз все частіше "Велика Британія") the English Channel – Ла. Манш the Alps – Альпи Beijing, Peking – Пекін Suomi, Finland – Суомі, Фінляндія, Nippon – Японія Charles I – Карл I William the Conqueror – Вільгельм Завойовник John the Lackland – Іоан Безземельний