Legacy of the IBM System/360 As presented to the NIU Student Chapter of the ACM Dan Greiner dgreiner@us. ibm. com IBM z/Server Architecture 10 October 2013, 4: 00 pm IBM Systems and Technology Group (STG) © Copyright International Business Machines Corporation 2011 -2013.
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Topics du Jour: § Data processing prior to the System/360 § The System/360 Project ► Requirements ► Development ► Software ► Challenges § System/360 Legacy ► 49½ years of industry-leading information processing IBM System/360 Model 65 Operator’s Console 3
Ancient History: 1952 § Beginning of the “computer age”: ► 8: 30 p. m. EST, 4 November 1952 ► Remington Rand’s Univac-I predicted U. S. General election results – Eisenhower – 438 electoral votes; Stephenson – 93 – With only 5% of the votes counted, Univac was within 1% of the final results! – CBS (Walter Cronkite’s 1 st election coverage) delayed broadcasting Univac results until after midnight because they couldn’t believe it! § In that era, IBM was world leader in electro-mechanical accounting machines ► A legacy of Herman Hollerith’s 1890’s punched-card IBM 701 Data-Processing Machine technology § IBM enters the “modern” computer era in late 1952 with the IBM 701 Electronic Data Processing Machine ► 19 units built and sold 4
Setting the Stage § From 1952 -1960: ► IBM revenues grew almost 10 x ► Earnings - $305 million; Revenue – 2. 6 billion ► Employees grew from 30, 000 to over 125, 000 § IBM computing product line in the early 1960 s: ► Eight separate products ► Completely different architectures, software, & peripherals ► Migrating from one to another – or to a new product – was difficult 5
S/360’s Ancestors § SAGE – Early Warning Air-Defense System (late ’ 50 s – early ’ 60 s) ► First real-time, integrated, online system over North America ► Each system weighed >250 tons, 60, 000 vacuum tubes § NASA Projects (late ’ 50 s & on) ► Real-time systems for Vanguard, Mercury, Gemini, & Apollo missions ► Key to developing multi-processing systems § SABRE – Airline Reservations System (early 1960 s & on) ► Initially 1, 000 reservations terminals in 60 cities ► Also handled seat selection, rental car info, crew scheduling, fuel management, stand-by lists, aircraft maintenance info § Stretch – Supercomputer for AEC lab at Los Alamos (IBM 7030, delivered 1961) ► Advanced expertise in ferrite core memory & semiconductors ► 200 x faster than IBM 701 processors; 3 x faster than SAGE processors ► Evolved into IBM 7090 commercial system 6
1962 Environment § Competition was nipping at IBM’s heels ► Burroughs, Control Data Corp. , GE, Honeywell, NCR, RCA, & Univac § IBM had eight separate, totally incompatible products ► Data-Systems Division (Poughkeepsie, NY): – Systems that leased for more then $10, 000 / month – IBM 7000 -series systems (proposed new 8000 -series) ► General-Products Division – Burlington, VT, Endicott, NY, Rochester, NY, & San Jose, CA – Systems that leased for less than $10, 000 / month – IBM 1400 -series systems (1 st computer to sell > 10, 000 units); IBM 1600 -series in development ► World-Trade Corporation – Developing small scientific computer (SCAMP) ► Intense inter-divisional rivalry (and secrecy) 7
1962 Technology § Solid-state technology was relatively new ► IBM’s Standard-Modular System (SMS) contained a handful of transistors on a 2. 5” x 4. 5” card ► Solid-Logic Technology (SLT) IBM Standard-Modular-System Card – 3 to 6 times the density of SMS cards – 100 times more reliable ► Integrated circuits – 100 times the density of SMS cards – Leading edge, very little background available – But … being used by RCA in competitive products IBM Solid-Logic-Technology Module Dual-Inline. Package (DIP) Integrated Circuit 8
1962 – A Momentous Decision ! § Customers were fed up with incompatible systems § The SPREAD (Systems, Programming, Research, Engineering & Development) team ► 11 -member team from across divisions § SPREAD Report: ► Recommended future development on all mainframe projects be scrapped ► New product line (NPL) would be developed: – Initially planned on five models (ended up with six) – Largest system to be 200 x faster than smallest – Performance range accomplished using SLT technology of differing speed, data-path-width differences, &c. – Each CPU to have high-speed memory using permanentlystored control information 9
1962 – A Momentous Decision !! § SPREAD Report: ► Software will be compatible on all levels of the system – upward and downward! ► Each processor will be economically competitive in its own marketplace ► Standard I/O interfaces will be used across the entire product line – Required development of dozens of new peripherals: disk drives, tape drives, printers, card readers, magnetic & optical character readers, communications adapters, and terminals ► “Since such processors must have capabilities not now present in any IBM processor product, the new family of products will not be compatible with our existing processors. ” 10
1962 – 1964: Development § Estimated total cost in 1962 was $675 million § Actual development cost closer to $5 billion ► ~ $35 billion in 2013 dollars, adjusted for inflation ► Accustomed to “swimming in cash”, IBM came close to not being able to meet payroll ► $750 million invested in engineering ► $4. 5 billion invested in factories, equipment, and the product itself ► Fortune called it, “IBM’s $5, 000, 000 Gamble” 11
1962 – 1964: Development § Honeywell’s H-200 computer (announced 1963): ► “Liberator” program allowed translation of IBM 1401 programs on the Honeywell platform ► IBM lost nearly 200 customers within 2 months after announcement. – Overall computer demand up 15% … IBM grew only 7% – IBM head of sales: “Help, I’m being slaughtered. ” – Potential that the entire NPL would be scrapped § Emulator option: ► With relatively small microcode investment, NPL could run existing (1401 & 7090) customer applications on NPL faster than on existing systems ► Salvaged many customers ready to jump ship 12
System/360 – the Name § Initially plans for NPL – IBM 500 ► Not particularly attractive … but we needed a number ► 360 represented the number of degrees on a compass – Indicated the processor was suited to any application – Stylized compass rose chosen as an icon – “System” and the slash added “because it looked nice. ” § Much corporate churn about the name ► President & VP of data-products division, VP of communications battled it out ► System/360 won by default when some clever entrepreneur painted it on the nose of the corporate aircraft 13
7 April 1964 § IBM System/360 announced to the world ► Announcement efforts planned for over a year in advance ► Press conferences in 165 cities & 14 countries ► Estimated 100, 000 customers & prospects ► Special train from NYC to Poughkeepsie “A new generation of electronic computing equipment was introduced by the IBM Corporation IBM Board Chairman Thomas J. Watson, Jr. called the event the most important announcement in the company’s history. The new equipment is known as the IBM System/360” 14
Post-Announcement Reaction § Within 4 weeks of the announcement, orders for 1, 000 systems were received ► Within the second 4 weeks, 1, 000 more orders § T. J. Watson memoirs: ► [System/360] was the biggest, riskiest decision I ever made, and I agonized about it for weeks, but deep down, I believed there was nothing IBM couldn’t do. ► Within IBM there was a great feeling of celebration because a new era was opening up, … But when I looked at those new products, I didn’t feel as confident as I’d have liked. Not all the equipment on display was real; some units were just mockups made of wood … an uncomfortable reminder to me of how far we had to go before we could call the program a success. 15
The Next 18 Months – Major Problem #1 § Technology problems with Solid Logic Technology (SLT) modules ► Volume requirements would exceed capacity of vendors ► Pressure for production causing yield failures – End of 1965 … 25% SLT failure ► In-house manufacturing facilities developed: – East Fishkill, NY plant SLT module output: 1963 – ½ million; 1964 – 12 million; 1965 – 28 million; 1966 – 90 million – Plants in Burlington, VT & Essonnes, France – 26 million each 16
The Next 18 Months – Major Problem #2 § Logistics Problems ► Component delays – Running out of circuit breakers halted manufacturing ► Software delays ► Competitor announcements – Marketing pressure to change System/360 to address competition ► Personality problems – Friction between engineering and manufacturing (led by Dick Watson – T. J. ’s younger brother) and sales led to Dick Watson being replaced. 17
The Next 18 Months – Major Problem #3 § Software Problems ► Upward- & downward-compatibility requirements. ► Multiprogramming challenges ► Developing interim products to counter competitive challenges ► Moving target – constantly changing due to dynamic marketing requirements ► SW-development, led by Fred Brooks, grew to over 1, 000 people – Brook’s Law: Adding manpower to a late software project makes it later. ► Some teams working 60 -hour weeks ► Initially, over 1, 000 lines of code (LOC) – Grew to 10, 000 LOC – Budgeted $30 -40 million; actual ~ $500 million 18
The Next 18 Months & Onwards § By December 1966: ► Over 7, 000 systems installed ► $4 billion in new revenue – $1 billion in pre-tax profits ► IBM hired 25, 000 new employees in 1966 ► Added 3 million square feet of manufacturing space ► Producing 1, 000 System/360 units per month ► SLT modules reached projected 33 -million-hour MTBF § By 1970: ► Revenues went from $3. 2 billion to $7. 5 billion ► Earnings went from $431 million to over $ 1 billion ► Employees grew nearly 120, 000 … to 269, 000. 19
The System/360 Architectural Legacy IBM System/360 Model 44 20
In the Beginning … System/360 (1964) § CPU Architecture ► 32 -bit arithmetic ► 16 general-purpose registers ► 24 -bit addressing (16, 777, 216 bytes max. ) – More than a few megabytes was quite rare ► Real addressing only! No virtual memory ► Approximately 142 instructions total ► Some features were optional – – Floating point (with 4 floating-point registers) – Direct control (specialty I/O for check sorters, &c. ) – § Decimal instructions (in-storage only) Protection feature (i. e. , storage keys) I/O architecture ► Maximum of 7 channels – One byte-multiplexor channel (printers, card readers, &c) – Up to seven selector channels (disks, tape) IBM System/360 Model 50 ► Maximum of 256 devices per channel ► Most machines had far fewer channels & devices 21
In the Beginning … System/360 (1964) § Storage technology ► Ferrite core storage – Each toroid “donut” represented one bit ► Architectural maximum: 16 megabytes – Reality: Most customers had no more than 1 -2 megabytes ► Increasing density … the donut-hole test: – New product’s core toroid fit through the donut hole of the previous product’s core IBM System/360 Model 50 IBM System/360 Core-Memory Panels (approx. 32 K) 22
System/360 Software § Operating Systems ► Basic Operating System (BOS) ► Tape Operating System (TOS) ► Disk Operating System (DOS) ► Operating System / Multiple Fixed Tasks (OS/MFT) ► Operating System / Multiple Variable Tasks (OS/MVT) ► SABRE (Airline Reservations) ► Time-Sharing System (TSS) ► Control Program / 67 (CP/67) with the Cambridge Monitor System (CMS) § Languages ► ALGOL ► Assembler ► Basic ► COBOL ► Fortran ► PL/1 ► RPG § Online Transaction Processing ► Customer Information Control System (CICS) ► Conversational Programming System (CPS) § Numerous independentsoftware-vendor packages 23
System 370 (1970) § Virtual addressing ► One or multiple 24 -bit virtual spaces ► Ability to over-commit real storage ► Ability to segregate data according to subsystem and user § Real storage still limited to 24 -bit addressing ► Most CPUs still had (far) less than 16 Mbytes ► Monolithic solid-state memory … no more core § § Introduced new 16 control registers Introduced 13 new instructions ► Load/store control registers ► Compare / move long streams of characters ► Compare / insert / store character under mask § I/O subsystem expanded to (up to) 16 IBM System/370 Model 138 channels ► 32 channel option on some later machines § Hardware-assisted debugging (PER) 24
System/370 Software § Operating Systems ► Disk Operating System / Virtual Storage Extended (DOS/VSE) ► Single Virtual Storage (SVS) ► Multiple Virtual Storage (MVS) ► Transaction Processing Facility (TPF, successor to SABRE) ► Virtual Machine / 370 (VM/370) § Database Systems ► Information Management System (IMS) IBM System/370 Model 148 ► DB/2 ► System Query Language (SQL) 25
System 370 Enhancements (1978 -1982) § 26 -bit real addressing (up to 64 MB) ► Single virtual address space still limited to 24 bits (16 MB) § Various specialty facilities ► Operating-system assist instructions for obtaining / releasing locks, tracing, &c. ► Mathematical assists (transcendental functions, &c. ) ► High-accuracy arithmetic § Dual-address space ► Primary & secondary spaces ► New instructions: IBM 3031 Processor Complex – PROGRAM CALL / PROGRAM RETURN – INSERT / SET ADDRESS SPACE CONTROL – MOVE TO PRIMARY / SECONDARY 26
370 Extended Architecture (1983) § 31 -bit virtual addressing ► Single address space providing up to 2 G-bytes ► Bimodal addressing (1 bit of the 32 -bit address stolen to designate 24 - or 31 -bit addressing mode) § 31 -bit real addressing (2 gigabytes max. ) ► Most customers still had much less memory § Entirely new I/O subsystem ► Up to 256 I/O channels ► Up to 65, 536 I/O devices § New instructions for I/O, storage key manipulation, and program linkage § Hardware tracing IBM 3081 Processor Complex ► Eliminated significant bottleneck in multiprocessor tracing 27
Interpretive Execution (1984) § Hardware virtualization ► Used by Processor Resource / System Manager (PR/SM) – Provides logical partitioning of physical machine ► Used by VM/370 Operating System ► Apportions physical resources to “guest” programs – CPUs, I/O channels, real memory ► Allows multiple operating systems to operate concurrently / separately IBM 3084 Processor Complex ► Extremely fast context switch from one guest to another 28
A Few Side Trips (1980 s) § 4300 -series processor models ► Three models of mid-sized, lowercost processors for departmentlevel or small business applications ► Same CPU architecture and I/O capabilities § Vector facility IBM 4381 Processor Complex ► Single-engine multiple-data (SIMD) instruction extension ► Intended for large-array analytics: oil research, weather prediction, fluid-dynamics modeling IBM 3090 Processor Complex 29
Enterprise Systems Architecture / 370 (1989) § Introduced access-register translation (ART) ► Provided the means by which a program could access multiple address spaces with minimum overhead ► Up to 2, 048 31 -bit (2 G-byte) address spaces (i. e. , up to 4 T-bytes) ► New nonprivileged instructions for manipulation of ARs § Introduced the home address space ► Location for principal task (process) control structures ► Where to go (i. e. , who to blame) when a task abnormally ends § Introduced the linkage stack IBM System 390 ► Push-down stack for semi-authorized tasks ► New instructions for manipulation of linkage stack. 30
Enterprise Systems Architecture / 390 (1990 -1999) § Numerous new facilities: ► Arithmetic instructions with 16 -bit immediate operands ► Branch instructions with 16 -bit relative-branch location ► Binary-floating-point instructions (IEEE standard) – 95 new instructions and floatingpoint control register ► Compression facility ► Check-sum instruction (for TCP/IP & others) ► Extended-translation instructions (Unicode™ conversion) ► Sorting-assist instructions ► String-manipulation instructions IBM Enterprise Server 9000 § Enhancements to dual-addressspace facilities 31
Mainframe Perceptions in the 1990 s § Reports of the death of the mainframe were premature ► “I predict that the last mainframe will be unplugged on March 15, 1996. ” – Stewart Alsop, March 1991 ► “It’s clear that corporate customers still like to have centrally controlled, very predictable, reliable computing systems—exactly the kind of systems that IBM specializes in. ” – Stewart Alsop, February 2002 Stuart Alsop (from IBM 2001 Annual Report) 32
z/Architecture & the z. Series z 900 & z 800 (2000) § General registers grew to 64 bits ► Existing 32 -bit instructions retained – Used rightmost 32 bits of the 64 -bit registers ► Large suite of 64 -bit analogues added ► 163 new instructions (139 general, 11 control, 12 floating point) § Provides 64 -bit virtual address space ► Up to 16 exabytes in a single space – 18, 446, 744, 073, 709, 551, 616 bytes ► With access-register translation, up to 2, 048 spaces (275 bytes) – 37, 778, 931, 862, 957, 161, 709, 568 bytes ► Trimodal (24 -, 31 -, or 64 -bit) addressing – Ability to dynamically switch between addressing modes § 64 -bit real storage addressing ► Current models offer up to six terabytes of real storage IBM e. Server z. Series 900 33
z. Series 64 -Bit Operating Systems § z/OS ► Successor to MFT, MVT, SVS, MVS, OS/390 ► “Western civilization runs on z/OS” – Bob Rogers, IBM DE Emeritus § z/VM ► Successor to CP/67, VM/370 and follow-on systems ► Gold standard of virtualization § z/TPF ► Continuing support of large-scale transaction processing used by airlines, hotels, car-rentals, &c § z. Linux ► Mainframe-class server software with attitude 34
Facilities Added to to the z 900 & z 800 § Extended-translation facilities ► Provides for translating, comparing, and moving single- and double-byte character representations § Multiply and add / subtract instructions ► Enhancements to classic hexadecimal floating point ► Key to advanced math & crypto operations § Long-displacement facility ► Provides significant register-constraint relief ► Increases displacement in storage-accessing instructions from 4 K to 1 M 35
Facilities Added in the z. Series z 990 & z 890 (2002) § Message-Security Assist ► Five general instructions that perform wide variety of HW cryptographic operations ► DEA-64, -128, 192; SHA-1 § More extended-translation facility enhancements ► Instructions to perform Unicode™ conversions § Functional enhancements to cross-memory linkage operations IBM e. Server z. Series 990 36
Facilities Added in the z 9 -109 (2005) § Decimal floating point facility ► 54 new instructions based on the emerging DFP standard § Additional instructions with extended (32 bit) immediate operands ► Relieves register constraints & cache accesses § Improved timing-facility instructions ► Allows synchronization of TOD clocks to within nanoseconds across great distances § Unnormalized extensions for classic hexadecimal floating point (useful for crypto operations) § Message-security-assist enhancements #1 IBM e. Server z. Series z 9 -109 ► SHA-256, AES-128, & PRNG 37
Facilities Added in the System z 10 (2008) § Instructions to provide better indication of machine topology ► Cache cognizance / prefetching of operands § New compare-and-branch / compare-andtrap combo instructions § Additional instructions with long immediate operands § Additional instructions with relative addresses § § § Rotate-then-***-selected bits instructions Instructions to facilitate text parsing Message-security-assist enhancements # 2 ► AES-192, AES-256, & SHA-512 § § IBM Enterprise Class z 10 “Large page” dynamic address translation CPU measurement facility 38
Facilities Added in the z 196 (2010) § High-word facility ► § Interlocked-access facility ► § Effectively provides 16 additional 32 -bit general registers Improved multiprocessor serialized access to storage Load / store-on-condition facility ► ► § § § Conditional execution of an instruction based on CC Significant code performance improvement Distinct-operands facility BFP and DFP floating-point enhancements Message-security-assist enhancements #3 & 4 ► Provides hardware-secured encrypted keys for existing functions ► § § CFB-, OFB-, CMAC-, CC-, GC-, and XTS-modes of encryption Numerous other performance enhancements. IBM z. Enterprise z 196 Blade. Center – direct attachment of blade-technology servers of other architectures. 39
Facilities Added in the z. EC 12 (2012) § DFP zoned-conversion facility ► Allows efficient calculation of packed / zoned values, with minimum storage accesses § Enhanced-DAT Facility 2 ► § Interlocked-access facility 2 ► § 2 G-byte storage frame Simplifies multi-programming Optimizations for Java ► Load-and-trap facility ► Execution-hint & branch-prediction facilities ► Miscellaneous general instruction enhancements ► Run-time instrumentation facility – § Dynamically monitor and alter workloads Transactional-execution facility ► First generally-available processor to provide transactional memory implementation. ► Potential for significant multiprocessing improvements ► Lock elision ► IBM z. Enterprise EC 12 Speculative execution 40
? ? S/360 Legacy Systems – Instruction Growth 1000 INSTRUCTIONS 800 System/360 – ESA/390 600 z/Architecture 400 200 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 YEAR 41
Summary (1) § System/360 was the evolutionary outgrowth of the IBM products of the early 1960 s ► An amalgam of existing hardware technology ► A completely new CPU architecture § Significant corporate gamble ► Costs greatly exceeded expectations … but ► Results were successful beyond all expectations § CPU architecture that is robust and enduring ► Upwards and downwards software compatibility across all product models ► Application programs from 1964 can still successfully execute on the latest z/Architecture processors ► Architectural legacy that continues to grow 42
Summary (2) § S/360 architecture has evolved to provide numerous enhancements: ► Additional addressing (24 31 64 -bit addresses) ► Larger binary data (32 64 -bit registers) ► Two additional floating-point representations (HFP + BFP & DFP) ► Advanced program-linkage operations ► Ability to access multiple address spaces simultaneously ► Much broader I/O capacity – Over 1, 000 I/O channels using fibre-channel, Ethernet, PCI, &c ► Additional instructions for compiler efficiency – – Register constraint relief Cache optimization General performance benefit z/Architecture now includes over 1, 000 instructions !! § All while retaining application-program compatibility with the original S/360 instruction set 43
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