Lecture 7 Stylistic Semasiology of the English Language

Lecture 7 Stylistic Semasiology of the English Language 1. The notion of EM and SD on the semasiological level. Figures of qualification and quantity as EM of the semasiology and figures of integration as SD of the semasiology. 2. EM of the English semasiology: a) figures of quantity (hyperbole, meiosis, litotes); b) figures of qualification / quality: - metaphorical group; - metonymical group; - irony. 3. SD of the English semasiology: a) figures of identity (simile, synonymic variation) b) relations of opposition (antithesis, oxymoron) c) relations of unequality (gradation, anticlimax, pun, zeugma).

1. The notion of EM and SD on the semasiological level. Figures of qualification and quantity as EM of the semasiology and figures of integration as SD of the semasiology. n n n The problem of Semasiology has been discussed for many centuries. The Greek and Roman Rhetorics established, investigated and classified such basic terms of semasiology as tropes and figures of speech. In the course of time some terms used in ancient Philology have disappeared whereas new ones were introduced. In the European philological tradition there still exists the division into tropes and figures of speech. One should distinguish between expressive means and stylistic devices into which figures of speech are divided.

n n Semasiology is a linguistic science which studies the meaning of language units of different levels (words, word combinations, utterances, texts) (O. Morokhovsky). Stylistic semasiology is a branch of semasiology that studies meanings, semantic changes and semantic relations within words and word-combinations that are used as EM and SD (O. Morokhovsky).

n n n According to prof. Yu. Screbnev, all stylistic devices are traditionally called figures of speech. Though it is better to use this term only with reference to devices consisting of more than one element. As for tropes, one should call tropes figures of replacement (substitution). They can be considered to be expressive means of the Semasiology. Figures of substitution are expressive means of Semasiology which are a combination of secondary nominations existing in the language or created in the speech on the basis of regular models (O. Morokhovsky) Figures of substitution are divided into figures of quantity and figures of quality. Figures of quantity consist of two opposite varieties: overstatement (exaggeration), and understatement (weakening).

EM of the English Semasiology (Figures of Substitution) Figures of Quantity Hyperbole Meiosis Litotes Figures of Quality Metonymy Synecdoche Periphrasis Euphemism Metaphor Irony Antonomasia Personification Allegory

Figures of quality comprise three types of renaming: a) transfer based upon contiguity, upon a real connection between the object of nomination and the object whose name is used; b) transfer by similarity (likeness, affinity) of two objects; c) transfer by contrast: the two objects (actions, qualities) are diametrically opposite. n n Figures of integration are stylistic devices of Semasiology. They are subdivided into figures of identity (equality), opposition and unequality. Thus, identical, different and opposite meanings are investigated in the sphere of stylistic devices. Identical meanings. Linguistic units co-occurring in the text either have the same meaning, or are used as names of the same object (thing, phenomenon, process, property, etc. ) Different meanings. The correlative linguistic units in the text are perceived as denoting different objects (phenomena, processes, properties). Opposite meanings. Two correlative units are semantically polar. The meaning of one of them is incompatible with the meaning of the second: the one excludes the other.

2. EM of the English Semasiology. n n n Figures of substitution are divided into figures of quantity and figures of quality. Figures of quantity are figures based on comparison of two different subjects (phenomena) or their qualities according to their mutual quantitative criterion (O. Morokhovsky). Here belong hyperbole, meiosis and litotes. Hyperbole is a trope in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration of a feature essential to an object or phenomenon and which relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. n e. g. Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old. The main sphere of use of hyperbole is colloquial speech: n e. g. A thousand pardons. Haven't seen you for ages. In works of poetry and fiction expressive hyperbole is used. Exaggeration is on a big scale there: n e. g. One after another those people lay down on the ground to laugh - and two of them died (Mark Twain).

Meiosis is a stylistic device which consists in deliberate understatement. e. g. The gold restored - that cost me a pretty penny, I can tell you (F. King). n n n Meiosis is often called understatement. This trope is the logical and psychological opposite of hyperbole. It is lessening, weakening, reducing the real characteristics of the object of speech. It is widely known that meiosis is typical of the British manner of speech, in opposition to American English in which hyperbole seems to prevail. Litotes is a trope which consists in the affirmation of the contrary by negation. n e. g. The wedding was no distant event. This term denotes a specific form of meiosis, not an independent trope. Litotes is expressing an idea by means of negating the opposite idea. Litotes enhances positive qualities of objects or phenomena. It makes the statement and judgements sound delicate and diplomatic.

Figures of quality are figures based on comparison of properties and qualities of two different subjects (phenomena) according to their mutual qualitative criterion (O. Morokhovsky). n Metaphor is a trope which consists in the use of words (wordcombinations) in transferred meanings by way of similarity or analogy. n n n e. g. Art is a jealous mistress. Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, and functions in the sentence as any of its members. The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles.

Classification of Metaphor n n n 1) according to the pragmatic effect produced upon the adressee dead original 2) according to the degree of stylistic potential nominational cognitive imaginative 3) according to the structure simple prolonged 1) Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. n e. g. the apple of one's eye, floods of tears, seeds of evil. Original metaphors are created in speech by speaker's imagination and they are not registered in dictionaries. n e. g. Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.

2) Nominational metaphor does not render any stylistic information, it is intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. Nominational metaphor is a purely technical device of nomination. e. g. the arm of the chair, the foot of the hill. Cognitive metaphor is formed when an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object. n e. g. One more day has died. Imaginative metaphor is the most expressive kind of metaphor. n e. g. Time was bleeding away. 3) Simple (elementary) metaphor consists of a single word or wordcombination expressing indiscrete notion. n e. g. The leaves were falling sorrowfully. Sustained (prolonged) metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings. n e. g. The Tooth of Time, which has already dried many a tear, will let the grass grow over this painful wound.

n Antonomasia is a variant of metaphor and a trope which consists in the use of a proper name to denote a different person who possesses some qualities of the primary owner of the name. n n n Antonomasia is used in belles-lettres style, in publicistic style, in essays and in military language. Personification is a figure in which an " animate " or human feature is ascribed to an inanimate object or to an abstract concept. n n n e. g. Every Caesar has his Brutus. e. g. Two men in uniforms were running heavily to the Administration building (I. Shaw). Personification requires a context. It is typical of fiction, although this expressive means can be realized in various styles. In poetry and fiction the purpose of personification is to help to visualize the description, to impart dynamic force to it or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer.

Allegory is a variety of metaphor which is used only in fiction and is realized only in the whole text. The texts may be of different size and volume. The shortest texts of that kind are proverbs. Most fables are allegoric. The plots of the novels "The Old Man and the Sea" by E. Hemingway, "The Lord of Flies" by W. Golding, "The Centaur" by J. Updike are considered to be allegoric too. n n n Metonymy is a trope in which the name of one thing is used in place of that of another, closely related to it. n e. g. I went back to the novel I had been reading, a Simenon. Metonymy is created by a different semantic process and is based on contiguity (nearness) of objects or phenomena. Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine). Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meanings: n e. g. a hand (worker), grave (death). Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech: n e. g. This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel.

n n n Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy which consists in transferring of the name based on the relations of the part and the whole, i. e. a part is as a whole and a whole is as a part. n e. g. The hat went away. Synecdoche is realized in two variants. The first variant is naming the whole object by mentioning part of it: n e. g. Caroline lives with Jack under the same roof (in the same house). The second variant of synecdoche is using the name of the whole object to denote a constituent part of this object: n e. g. The school went to the zoo.

n n Periphrasis is substitution of the name of the object or phenomenon by descriptive phrase singling out the most characteristic features of the given object or phenomenon. n e. g. fair sex, strong sex. There are two types of periphrasis: logical and figurative. Logical periphrases is based upon one of the inherent properties of the object: n e. g. the most pardonable of human weaknesses (love), instruments of destruction (weapons). Figurative periphrases is based upon metaphor or metonymy: n e. g. root of evil (money), young blood (enthusiast).

Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis which consists in substitution of rude and unpleasant words by more polite ones. e. g. to depart, to decease, to join the majority. Euphemisms may be classified according to the sphere of their application and grouped into religious, moral, medical, political. - Types of Euphemisms religious (e. g. God (Lord, Mighty, goodness) moral (e. g. to die (to be gone, to be no more) medical (e. g. lunatic asylum (mental hospital) political (e. g. revolution (tension)

n n Irony is a trope based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but two meanings stand in opposition to each other. n e. g. Last time it was a nice, simple, European-style war (I. Shaw). There at least two kinds of irony. The first represents utterances the ironical sense of which is evident to any native speaker - utterances that can have only an ironical message. This kind of irony is called by some authors antiphrasis. n e. g. A fine friend you are! To the second variety we can refer the majority of utterances which can be understood either literally, or ironically, especially when we deal with written texts. Thus, we cannot say if the speaker is serious or ironical. n e. g. But of course we know, he's a rich man, a millionaire.

SD of the English semasiology. n n n Stylistic devices of English semasiology (figures of integration) can be realized only in the given context. Mostly the figures of integration are formed in speech as a result of the semantic interaction of words, word-combinations and even paragraphs. The relations between lexical units are characterized by great variety, though it is possible to define three main types of correlation of the meanings of the lexical units: 1. Figures (relations)of identity (equality) are correlations of semantically identical (synonymic) lexical units. 2. Figures (relations) of opposition are correlations of semantically opposite antonymic lexical units. 3. Figures (relations) of unequality are correlations of semantically different lexical units.

Figures of Identity n n n Simile is a stylistic device which consists in an explicit likening of one thing to another on the basis of a common feature. n e. g. He reminded Julia of an old dog lying in the sun. Simile can be expressed by means of - conjunction as or like, - adverbial clauses of comparison, - adjectives in the comparative degree, - adverbial word-combinations containing prepositional attributes. Synonyms-substitutors are words which are used for naming the already mentioned subject, phenomenon, action and which give additional characteristics of the given subject in any other aspect. n e. g. There, on the table, lay a number of parcels. In a flush he realized that they were presents from his patients. Some of the gifts were not wrapped at all (A. Cronin).

n Synonyms-verifiers are such words which are used in order to give a full description of the subject because each synonym expresses an additional meaning. n e. g. Finally I wrote my grandmother about it. Her answer came quick and sharp (M. Twain).

Figures (Relations) of Opposition n n Antithesis is a figure of speech based on parallel constructions with contrasted words. n e. g. I had walked into that reading-room a happy, healthy man, I crawled out a decrepit wreck (J. Jerome). The term antithesis (from Greek anti against; thesis statement) has a broad range of meanings. The two opposed notions may refer to the same object of thought or to different objects. The purpose of using this device is to demonstrate the contradictory nature of the referent. Antithesis may concern two different objects opposed to each other. The device serves to underline their incompatibility. Oxymoron is a figure of speech by means of which contradictory words (notions) are combined. n e. g. awfully nice, pretty bad.

Figures (Relations) of Unequality n n Gradation (climax) is a stylistic device consisting in such distribution of elements of the utterance when each next element is characterized by increasing degree of intensity. n e. g. Of course, it's important. Incredibly, urgently, desperately important. The Greek word climax means ladder; the Latin gradatio means ascent, climbing up. These two synonymous terms denote such an arrangement of correlative ideas (notions expressed by words, word combinations or sentences) in which what precedes is less than that follows. Thus, the first element is the weakest; the subsequent elements gradually increase in strength.

n n n Anticlimax is a stylistic device consisting in such distribution of elements of the utterance when each next element is characterized by decreasing degree of intensity. n e. g. He was unconsolable - for an afternoon. This device is characterized by some authors as back gradation. However, anticlimax is not the opposite to climax. A real anticlimax is a sudden deception of the recipient. The recipient is disappointed in his expectations: he predicted a stronger element to follow; instead, some insignificant idea follows the significant one (ones).

Pun (play upon words) is a stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. e. g. There comes a period in every man's life, but she is just a semicolon in his. 1. Play on the words may be based on polysemy and homonymy: n e. g. Visitor, to a little boy: - Is your mother engaged? - Engaged? She is already married. n e. g. A young lady, weeping softly into her mother's lap: - My husband just can't bear children! - He needn't bear children, my dear. You shouldn't expect too much of your husband. 2. Play on words may be based upon similarity of pronunciation: n e. g. John said to Pete at dinner: "Carry on". But Pete never ate carrion. n n n

n n Zeugma is a stylistic device based on the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred. n e. g. He took his hat and his leave. n e. g. She went home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair. Zeugma is used to create humoristic effect which is achieved by means of contradiction between the similarity of the two syntactic structures and their semantic heterogeneity.

SD of the English Semasiology (Figures of Integration) Figures of Equality simile synonyms-substitutors synonyms-verifiers Figures of Opposition antithesis oxymoron Figures of Unequality gradation anticlimax zeugma pun