Lecture 7 Phraseology in Modern English Plan

Lecture 7 Phraseology in Modern English

Plan: 1. Phraseological units and their properties. Criteria of phraseology. 2. Classifications of phraseological units. 3. Ways of formation of phraseological units. The origin of phraseology.

Although Teresa has always been an excellent student, her marks have been going down lately because she is spreading herself too thin. Besides spending a great deal of time in after-school sports, she got a part-time job as a clerk in a department store. It's only natural that her grades would suffer. She is becoming involved in so many activities that she cannot devote the time that it takes to excel in any one of them.

Spread Oneself Too Thin

The prerequisites for admission to the Theater Arts School are quite demanding, and those students who were finally accepted had reason to kick up their heels. It was only natural that those who made it through the exams and interviews would want to celebrate the occasion by going out and having a good time.

Kick Up One's Heels

Don's father hit the ceiling when he was informed that his son had been detained by the police for disorderly conduct. He became violently angry, since he had often warned his son not to keep company with that group of boys.

Hit the Ceiling

1. Phraseological units and their properties. Criteria of phraseology

Regularly reproduced and having specific restrictions, structure and meaning, such word combinations should definitely be memorized, lexicalized and enter our lexicon. They should be the subject of lexicology alongside its other lexical units.

These complex ready-made and often idiomatic units are the objects of a special branch of lexicology – phraseology

Phraseological units represent what can probably be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary. No proper scientific investigation of English phraseology has ever been attempted until quite recently. American and English dictionaries contain a wealth of proverbs, sayings, but as a rule do not seek to lay down a reliable criterion to distinguish between variable word-groups and phraseological units.

The first dictionary in which theoretical principles for the selection of phraseological units were elaborated was published in our country (A. A. Schachmatov, V. V. Vinogradov, A. V. Koonin).

Phraseological unit – first introduced by academician V. V. Vinogradov.

Some other terms denoting more or less the same linguistic phenomenon: setexpressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, collocations.

Free word-groups: word combinations the components of which can be substituted

A Phraseological Unit: • a stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning.

A Phraseological Unit: • non-motivated wordgroups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units.

Criteria of Phraseology: 1. criterion of stability 2. criterion of idiomaticity (lack of motivation) 3. criterion of function

Criterion of stability – unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication, member words of phraseological units are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations. • red tape 'bureaucratic methods'; • red flower, black, white, yellow.

Criterion of idiomaticity (lack of motivation) – the meaning of a phraseological unit cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components and it exists as a ready-made unit. • to carry coal to Newcastle 'to take smth to a place where it is already plentiful and not needed'. • to have a bee in one’s bonnet 'to have an obsession about smth; to be eccentric or even little mad'.

Criterion of function – phraseological units function as word -equivalents. • heavy weight (each of the member-words has its own denotational meaning; the lexical meaning of the word-group can be described as the combined lexical meaning of its parts). • heavy father 'serious part in a theatrical play' (it acts as one word; the individual member words do not seem to possess any lexical meaning outside the meaning of the group).

The main characteristic of phraseological units is reproduction, i. e. they function as ready-made units in the process of communication. But this characteristic is also found in sayings, quotations, idioms, set phrases, etc. That is why the boundaries of phraseology are not exact.

V. V. Vinogradov, А. V. Koonin include proverbs in their classification of phraseological units. А. I. Smirnitsky doesn’t consider proverbs as phraseological units.

N. N. Amosova includes into phraseology only such proverbs that are characterized by stability and fixed context; and when they are included into a sentence they do not make it complex. They are units of nomination, not communication. • as the crow flies 'кратчайшим путем'; • as bad luck would have it 'к несчастью'.

Another group of linguists includes sayings into phraseology but excludes proverbs as they are equivalents to the whole story, a description of events.

A phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of important features, which can therefore be approached from different points of view.

2. Classifications of phraseological units

The Thematic or Etymological Principle: the oldest principle. This approach is widely used in numerous E. and Am. guides to phraseological units. On this principle phraseological units are classified according to their sources of origin – sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc.

L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of phraseological units used by sailors, fisherman, soldiers, phraseological units associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture, cooking, etc.

Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea are especially numerous. Most of them have developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors. • to be all at sea 'to be unable to understand'; • in deep water 'in trouble, danger'; • in low water, on the rocks 'in strained financial circumstances'.

The Semantic Principle (by V. V. Vinogradov): founded on the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a phraseological unit. The more distant the meaning of a phraseological unit from the current meaning of its constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion. Units with a partially transferred meaning show the weakest cohesion between their components.

The Semantic Principle: 1. phraseological combinations (collocations) 2. phraseological unities 3. phraseological fusions

Phraseological Combinations: are usually made up of two open-class words and one of them is used figuratively. They are clearly motivated as the meaning of the units can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. • • to be good at smth; to take smth for granted; bosom friends; cash and carry 'a self-service shop'.

Phraseological Unities: partially motivated and stable word-groups, but their meaning can be perceived through the metaphoric sense of the whole phraseological unit. • • to stick to one’s guns 'to be true to one’s views'; to lose one’s heart to smb 'to fall in love'; to play the first fiddle 'to be a leader in something'; to look a gift horse in the mouth 'to examine a present too critically'.

Phraseological Fusions: word-groups with the completely changed meaning. In contrast to the unities they are demotivated – their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts. They cannot be translated word for word into other languages. • at sixes and sevens 'in confusion or disagreement'; • to set one’s cap at smb 'to try and attract a man (spoken about girls and women)'; • to spill the beans 'to divulge information indiscreetly'.

The Weak Point of This Classification: the borderline between the types of phraseological units, especially the borderline separating unities from fusion, is vague and subjective. Moreover, it does not take into account the structural characteristics of phraseological units.

The Structural Principle: based on the ability of the phraseological units to perform the same syntactical functions as words.

1. Verbal • • • The Structural Principle: to run for one’s life; to get the upper hand; to make a song and dance about smth 'to behave as if that smth was worse, more important, more difficult than it really is'. 2. Substantive • • dog’s life; calf love; birds of a feather 'people with the same characteristics, ideas, interests, etc. ' 3. Adjectival (usually these are comparisons) • cool as a cucumber; nervous as a cat; mad as a hare in March. 4. Adverbial • • • by hook or by crook 'by any means'; for love or money; between the devil and the deep sea 'in a situation in which danger threatens whatever course of action one takes'. 5. Interjectional • by god! Goodness gracious! Good heavens!

A. I. Smirnitsky: a classification which combines structural and semantic approaches. Phraseological units in this classification are grouped according to the number of significant elements.

According to the Number of Significant Elements: a) one-summit units which have one meaningful constituent • to give up, to be surprised, to be tired. b) two-summit and multi-summit units which have two or more meaningful components • first night 'the first public performance of a play'; • common sense 'sound practical sense'; • to fish in troubled water 'ловить рыбу в мутной воде'.

A. V. Koonin worked out the most comprehensive classification of phraseological units and combined: • structural-semantic principles of classification, • factor of stability of phraseological units, • their functions in communication.

A. V. Koonin’s classification From the point of view of semantics: • units with completely transferred meaning (red tape) • units with partially transferred meaning (one can guess the sense of the phrase)

A. V. Koonin’s classification From the point of view of the function: 1. nominative – word-groups including the ones with one meaningful word and which perform the nominating function. • to breath one's last 'to die' • safe and sound 2. nominative-communicative – verbal wordgroups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice. • to break the ice – the ice is broken 'to make people feel more friendly and willing to talk to each other'

A. V. Koonin’s classification 3. communicative – convey the thought; they include proverbs and sayings: • A hungry man is an angry man. • If a man deceived me once, shame on him; if twice, shame on me. 4. interjectional phraseological units – are neither nominative nor communicative, mainly express emotions. • Well, I’ll never! • It's a pretty kettle of fish!

3. Ways of formation of phraseological units. The origin of phraseology.

Ways of formation of phraseological units: 1. Primary ways – are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group. 2. Secondary ways – are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit.

Primary Ways: 1. The most productive: by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups • e. g. in cosmic terminology: • launching pad – in its direct meaning 'стартовая площадка', in its transferred meaning – 'отправной пункт'; • to link up 'стыковать космические корабли', in its transferred meaning it means 'знакомиться'. 2. A large group of phraseological units was formed by transferring the meaning of free word groups (metaphor, contrast) • granny farm 'пансионат для престарелых'; • as old as the hills 'старый как мир'; • Trojan horse 'компьютерная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения компьютера'.

3. By means of alliteration a sad sack 'an person who makes mistakes despite good intentions'; • culture vulture 'a person considered to be excessively interested in the arts'. • 4. By means of rhyming • • by hook or by crook 'by any possible means'; high and dry 'left without help'. 5. By using synonyms • • • to pick and choose 'to be terribly choosy'; really and truly 'quite honestly'; stress and strain 'in a very strained condition'.

6. By means of expressiveness, it is especially characteristic of interjections • My aunt! • Hear, hear! 7. By means of distorting a word group • odds and ends was formed from odd ends. 8. By using archaisms • in brown study means in gloomy meditation where both components preserve their archaic meanings.

9. By using a sentence in a different sphere of life • that cock won’t fight: as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting); as a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically. 10. By using some unreal image • to have butterflies in the stomach 'испытывать волнение'; • to have green fingers 'преуспевать как садовод'. 11. By using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life • American dream (Alby), locust years (Churchilll).

Secondary Ways : 1. Conversion • to vote with one’s feet was converted into vote with one’s feet (expressing a protest by going away). 2. Changing the grammar form, a sentence • Make hay while the sun shines is transferred into a verbal phrase – to make hay while the sun shines. 3. Analogy • Curiosity killed the cat was transferred into Care killed the cat. 4. Shortening of proverbs or sayings • by means of clipping the middle of the proverb You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear the phraseological unit to make a sow’s ear (to make a mistake) was formed.

5. Contrast • • • cold surgery 'a planned before operation' was formed by contrasting it with acute surgery 'a non-planned operation in cases of danger'; thin cat 'a poor person' was formed by contrasting it with fat cat 'a rich person'; kiss of death 'treachery' was formed by contrasting it with kiss of life 'saving a person'. 6. Borrowing languages: phraseological units from other a) translation loans living space (German), to take the bull by the horns (Latin). b) phonetic borrowings corpse d’elite (French), mutadis mutandis (Latin).

The Origin of Phraseology: • proper English • borrowed from foreign languages • borrowed from American English

Proper English Phraseological Units: 1. Reflect traditions, beliefs, facts of English history. • to sit above the salt 'занимать высокое положение в обществе'; • to sit below the salt 'занимать скромное положение'; • to put smb in the cart 'поставить кого-либо в тяжелое положение'. 2. People believed that heavenly bodies influenced man’s destiny and the following phraseological units appeared: • to be born under a lucky star; • to bless one’s stars; • to curse one’s stars.

3. Were formed on the basis of proper names. • Sally Lunn – сладкая булочка – there was such a baker in the 18 c. • According to Cocker – правильно, точно, по всем правилам – the author of a famous book on arithmetics in the 17 th c. 4. Were taken from professional speech. • On the crest of the wave 'на вершине счастья' – of marine origin. • To spike smb’s guns 'сорвать чьи-либо враждебные планы' – of military origin. 5. Were taken from literature, especially from Shakespeare’s works. • Cakes and ale 'беззаботное веселье'. • A skeleton in the cupboard, cool as a cucumber – Thackeray.

Foreign Literature: 1. Bible: • To cast pearls before swine. • Daily bread. 2. Literature of ancient Rome: • The golden mean (Horace (Гораций)). • A snake in the grass – скрытый враг (Vergil (Вергилий)). 3. Fairy-tales: • An ugly duckling (Andersen). • Aladdin’s lamp.

Borrowed from American Literature: • The call of the wild 'зов природы, обаяние девственной природы' (Лондон). • To smoke the pipe of piece 'выкурить трубку мира' (Лонгфеллоу).

Phraseological units with no direct equivalents in other languages prevail in the English language. • to let the cat out of the bag 'проговориться, выдать секрет'; • to win hands down 'легко выиграть'; • to fly off the handle 'выйти из себя'.

All's Well That Ends Well (a successful outcome is worth the effort)

List of Literature: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Антрушина, Г. Б. Лексикология английского языка : учеб. пособие для студ. / Г. Б. Антрушина, О. В. Афанасьева, Н. Н. Морозова ; под ред. Г. Б. Антрушиной. – М. : Дрофа, 2001. – С. 225– 236, 242– 251. Воробей, А. Н. Глоссарий лингвистических терминов / А. Н. Воробей, Е. Г. Карапетова. – Барановичи : УО "Бар. ГУ", 2004. – 108 с. Дубенец, Э. М. Современный английский язык. Лексикология : пособие для студ. гуманит. вузов / Э. М. Дубенец. – М. / СПб. : ГЛОССА / КАРО, 2004. – С. 83– 95. Лексикология английского языка: учебник для ин-тов и фак-тов иностр. яз. / Р. З. Гинзбург [и др. ] ; под общ. ред. Р. З. Гинзбург. – 2 -е изд. , испр. и доп. – М. : Высш. школа, 1979. – С. 74– 88. Лещева, Л. М. Слова в английском языке. Курс лексикологии современного английского языка : учебник для студ. фак-в и отдел. английского языка (на англ. яз. ) / Л. М. Лещева. – Минск : Академия управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь, 2001. – С. 96– 109.