Lecture 6 Stylistic Grammar I The theory of

Lecture 6. Stylistic Grammar I. The theory of grammatical gradation. II. Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition. III. Morphological stylistics. Stylistic potential of parts of speech. 1. The stylistic power of the noun 2. The stylistic power of the article 3. The stylistic power of the pronoun 4. The adjective and its stylistic function 5. Stylistic properties of the verb 6. The expressive power of affixation

I. The theory of grammatical gradation the nature of stylistic effect the mechanism of stylistic function. The major principle of stylistic effect: the norm deviation from the norm (on different levels of the language). Skrebnev: traditional meaning situational meaning

grammatical gradation 1 Arnold : the very essence of poetic language is the violation of the norm (at all the levels of the language: phonetic, graphical, morphological, lexical, syntactical). Though: not every deviation from the norm results in expressiveness. • EX. : You do not use the article with an adverb or adjective (it would be linguistic nonsense).

grammatical gradation 2 Noam Chomsky: “grammatical gradation”: Marked structures : : Unmarked structures Grammatically correct : : Grammatically incorrect EX. : Решил он меня обмануть. *Decided he me to deceive.

grammatical gradation 3 Semi-marked structures are formed by the deviation from lexical and grammatical valency. “transposition” - a phenomenon that destroys customary (normal, regular, standard) valences and thus crate expressiveness.

II. Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition Grammatical metaphor - the transfer of the name from one object on to another. (Prof. E. I. Shendels) A grammatical form as well as a lexical unit possesses a denotative and connotative meaning.

3 types of denotative grammatical meaning: • 1. - reflects relations of objects in outside EX. : singularity and plurality; • 2. - denotes the relation of the speaker to the first type of denotation. It shows how objective relations are perceived by reactions to the outside world EX. : modality, voice, definiteness and indefiniteness; • 3. – intralinguistic denotation - has no reference to the extra-linguistic reality (relations among linguistic units) EX. : the formation of the past forms of regular and irregular verbs.

grammatical metaphor • Shendels: “grammatical metaphor is a transposition (transfer) of a grammatical form from one type of grammatical relation to another”. • Thus we deal with aredistribution of grammatical and lexical meanings that create new connotations.

3 types of grammatical transposition: • 1. The transposition of a certain grammar form into a new syntactical distribution with a resulting effect of contrast. • EX. : “Historical present”: a verb in the Present Indefinite form is used against the background of the Past Indefinite narration, creating the effect of vividness, an illusion of “presence”.

grammatical transposition 2 • 2. The transposition, involving both – the lexical and grammatical meanings. • EX. : the use of the plural form with a abstract or proper noun: “The look on her face… was full of secret resentments, and longings, and fears”.

grammatical transposition 3 • 3. The transposition of classifying grammatical meanings, bringing together situationally incompatible forms. • EX. : the use of common noun as a proper one = personification of inanimate objects or antonomasia. – Mr. Know-All, Mr. Truth, speaking names.

III. Morphological stylistics. Stylistic potential of parts of speech 1. The stylistic power of the noun -is linked to the grammatical categories this part of speech possesses: number, person, case. The use of a singular noun instead of an appropriate plural form (generalized, elevated effect). EX. : The faint fresh flame of the young year flushesFrom leaf to flower and from flower to fruit…

The stylistic power of the noun 2 - The use of proper names in the plural (unique generalizing effect). EX. : There were numerous Aunt Millies… - The transposition of a common noun into the class of proper names by attributing to it thoughts or qualities of a human being. - EX. : England’s mastery of seas was growing even greater… Last year her trading rivals…

The stylistic power of the noun 2 The use of plural instead singular (a more powerful description). EX. : The clamour of waters, snows, winds, rains… The lone and level sands stretch far away… - The use of plural form of an abstract noun EX. : And on this side flourished the injustices, the cruelties, the meannesses…

2. The stylistic power of the article - The use of the indefinite article with a proper name (evaluative connotations). EX. : I’m a Marlow by birth, and we are hotblooded. It may be charged with negative evaluative connotation. EX. : Besides Rain, Nan and Mrs. Prett, there was a Mrs. Kingsley, the wife of… A Forsyte is not an uncommon animal.

The stylistic power of the article 2 - The use of the definite article with a proper name. EX. : She loved him. Not the Stanley whom everyone saw, but… - The omission of the article before a common noun (a maximum level of abstraction, generalization). EX. : Not sound, not quiver as if horse and man had turned into metal.

3. The stylistic power of the pronoun The stylistic functions the disparity between the traditional and contextual meanings. (when one pronoun is transpos. Grammatical metaphor of the first type ed into the action sphere of another pronoun). - The use of personal pronouns WE, YOU, THEY with reference to a single person, the speaker (the plural of majesty). EX. : And for that offence do we exile him hence.

The stylistic power of the pronoun 2 - The plural of modesty (the author’s “we”) is used to identify oneself with the audience at large. EX. : My poor dear child, cried she, … is our passion unrequited then? - The use of the YOU pronoun as an intensifier in an expressive address or imperative. EX. : Just you go in and win. Such pronouns as ONE, YOU, WE - 2 connotations: - “identification” of the speaker/audience - “generalization”.

The stylistic power of the pronoun 3 - The overuse of the I pronoun testifies to the speaker’s egomania. The use of the third person pronoun instead of I or WE produces the effect of estrangement and generalization. EX. : I don’t want to write, I want to live. What does she mean by that? - The use of possessive pronoun devoid of any grammatical meaning of possession. EX. : Watch what you are about, my man!

The stylistic power of the pronoun 4 - absolute possessive form. EX. : Well, you tell that Herman of yours to mind his own business. They may express: irony, sarcasm, anger, contempt, resentment, irritation. - The use of demonstrative pronouns devoid of grammatical meaning of denoting. EX. : That wonderful girl! That beauty! These lawyers! Don’t you know they don’t eat often? Thus, the pronouns posses a strong stylistic potential that is realized due to the violation of the normal links with their object of reference.

4. The adjective and its stylistic functions The only grammatical category of the English adjective (quantitative and qualitative) is that of comparison. - So when the adjectives (that are not normally associated with comparative degree) are used with that category they are charged with a strong expressive power. Ex. : Mrs. Thompson, Old Man Fellow’s housekeeper had found him deader than a doornail…

The adjective and its stylistic functions 2 The commercial functional style makes a wide use of the violation of grammatical norms to captivate the reader’s attention. Ex. : The orangemostest drink in the world. - The transposition of other parts of speech into the adjective also creates stylistically marked pieces of description: Ex. : A camouflage of general suffuse and dirty-jeaned drabness covers everybody and we merge into the background.

The adjective and its stylistic functions 3 - The use of comparative and superlative forms with other parts of speech also conveys humorous colouring: Ex. : He was the most married man I’ve ever met. - The substantivized use of the adjective, when it acquires the qualities of a noun such as “solid, firm, hard, tangible”: Ex. : The impossible had happened.

5. Stylistic properties of the verb The deviant usage of the tense, voice, aspect forms has strong stylistic connotations and plays an important role in creating a metaphorical meaning. The vivid example of the grammatical metaphor is the use of “historical present” (See lecture N 6).

Stylistic properties of the verb 2 - Various shades of modality impart stylistically coloured expressiveness to the utterance. The Imperative form and the Present Indefinite referred to the future render determination. Ex. : Edward, let there be an end of this. - Continuous forms do not always express continuity but are frequently used to convey the emotional state of the speaker.

So continuous forms may express: ▫ conviction, determination, persistence Ex. : Well, she’s never coming here again, I tell you that straight. ▫impatience, irritation Ex. : I didn’t mean to hurt you. – You did. You’re doing nothing else. ▫surprise, indignation, disapproval Ex. : Women kill me. They’re always leaving their goddam bags out in the middle of the aisle.

Stylistic properties of the verb The use of the auxiliary DO in affirmative sentences is a notable emphatic devise. Ex. : I don’t want to look at her. I sip my coffee as long as possible. Then I do look at her and see that all the colour has left her face. • The stylistic potential of the verb is very high. The major mechanism of creating additional connotations is the transposition of verb forms that brings about the appearance of metaphors of the first and the second type.

6. The expressive power of affixation • The Russian language • The English language has a developed system does not possess a great of affixes with variety of word-forming evaluative expressive resources. meanings: diminutive, derogatory, endearing. • Ex. : малый - маленький –махонький – малюсенький

The expressive power of affixation The evaluative affixes function as a remnant of the former morphological system or as a result of borrowings from other languages. Ex. : piglet, girlie, lambkin, kitchenette. Due to its French origin the suffix –ESQUE is considered to be bookish and associated with exquisite elevated style. Ex. : arabesque, Romanesque, Dantesque, Kafkaesque.

Most frequently used suffixes of negative evaluation are: -ARD, -STER, -ASTER, -EER or halfaffix –MONGER. Ex. : drunkard, scandal-monger. But: great difference : • negative affixes (in-, un-, ir -, non-, Ex. : irregular, non-profit) represent objects that are devoid of some quality or do not exist at all “the non-profit organization” (positive connotations) • evaluative derogatory affixes the speaker’s attitude to the phenomenon