Lecture 6 COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES BASIC NOTIONS

Lecture 6 COMPOUND & COMPLEX SENTENCES. BASIC NOTIONS OF PRAGMATICS 1

POINTS AT ISSUE Structural types of sentences Kinds of conjunctions: coordinative, correlative, conjunctive adverbs, subordinating conjunctions Compound sentences Complex sentences. Types of clauses (Noun, Adjective, Adverb) Pragmatics as an approach of language study 2

STRUCTURAL TYPES OF SENTENCES 3

SENTENCE CONNECTION SYNDETICALLY : S[S[NP] [VP]] CONJ [S[NP][VP]]] ASYNDETICALLY S [S[NP][VP]] + [S[NP][VP]]] 4

KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS COORDINATING join independent words, phrases, sentences SUBORDINATING join dependent clauses to the main clauses 5

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another: words to words: boys and girls phrases to phrases: well done but clumsily presented clauses to clauses: Do you agree, or do you disagree? 6

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS either. . . or both. . . and neither. . . nor not only. . . but also These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one. 7

Join independent clauses together. after all, also, as a result, besides, consequently, finally, for example, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, still, then, therefore, thus 8

COMPOUND SENTENCES 9

He is a shy man, but he is not scared of anything or anyone. Emma lives at home and (she) has a steady job. 10

is associated closely with the distinction between coordinate and subordinate clauses. The dependent clause is called a subordinate clause The independent clause is called the main clause (= matrix clause). Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by subordinators 11

Join two clauses together, making one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other. After, although, as far as, as soon as, as if, as though, because, before, even if, even though, how, if, inasmuch as, in case (that), in order (that), insofar as, in that, lest, no matter how, now that, once, provided (that), since, so that, supposing (that), than, that, though, till, unless, until, whenever, wherever, whether, while, why 12

POSITION OF MAIN AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES The dependent clause(s) can be placed PREPOSITIONALLY: DC MC DC [If Helen doesn’t come], MC [Ann will be sorry] MEDIALLY (INTERPOSITION): MC DC MC MC [I saw the ship DC [that sailed the sea], MC [it left me] as [the sun went down]]. POSTPOSITIONALLY: MC DC MC [I will be surprised] DC [if she manages to sell that car]. 13

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NOUN CLAUSES (‘WHO? ’ / ‘WHAT? ’) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Subject Object of a verb, verbal, or the equivalent of a verb Complement Apposition Object of a preposition 15

performs within a complex sentence the same function that the subject performs within a simple sentence. Why he did that is a mystery. It is a mystery What she's doing is very interesting. That is very interesting. 16

TREE DIAGRAM OF THE SUBJECT CLAUSE S NP VP S A V Whether you understand this really matters 17

Performs within a complex sentence the same function that the object performs within a simple sentence who she is. I don't know where she lives. when she moved to the USA. S V O 18

TREE DIAGRAM OF THE NOUN (OBJECT) CLAUSE S NP Pron I VP Neg Aux V NP 2 S don't know who she is. 19

Object of a preposition At length he reached to where the ravine had opened through the cliffs. 20

introduced by the relative pronouns who, which, that, but, as by the conjunctions when, where, whither, whence, wherein, whereby asyndetically, a relative pronoun being understood. 21

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES MAY MODIFY The subject John, who was very much disappointed, didn’t move. The object I visited an arrogant Irish doctor [S 1 who thought] [S 2 he was God’s gift to women]]. The complement: "The only place I could go to was Aberdeen. ” (CVS) 22

The only place I could go to was Aberdeen. S NP VP N V C ___ ____ Aberdeen was the only place S I could go to 23

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Explain which person or thing you are talking about Are introduced with ‘that’, ‘which’, ‘who’ Don’t have a comma in front of them ‘that’, ‘which’, ‘who’ can be omitted when they refer to the object of the main clause NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Give further information which is not needed to identify the person, thing, group you are talking about Are used mainly in writing Have a comma in front of the clause ‘that’ is never used to introduce the clause 24

DEFINING : : NON-DEFINING CLAUSES DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES We live in the city which stands on the Dnieper The man [that] we saw yesterday lives next door [S[S we [V saw [O the man]]]] NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES We live in Kyiv, which stands on the Dnieper. John Smith, whom we saw yesterday, lives next door 25

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES TIME: when, after, as soon as, before, by the time (that), once, since, until / till, while PLACE: where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere REASON, or CAUSE: because, as, seeing that, since MANNER: as, like, (in) the way (that), (in) the same way, as if, as though DEGREE, or COMPARISON: as…as PURPOSE: so that, in order to /that, in case RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: so that, such that CONDITION: if, if not, unless CONCESSION: though, although, while; indefinite relatives, adverbs, and adverbial conjunctions, - whoever, whatever, however 26

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES A compound-complex sentence' or complexcompound sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses Although I like to go dancing, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with. independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go lately" independent clause: "I haven't found anyone to go with" dependent clause: "Although I like to go dancing. . . " 27

Syntax studies rules of combining words, phrases into sentences and texts Minor : : major syntax The term ‘sentence’ is very uneasy to define Sentences can be simple, compound, complex-compound Sentences can be connected (a)syndetically The marked sentence within the complex one is the dependent clause 28

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Pragmatics is concerned with bridging the explanatory gap between sentence meaning and speaker's meaning. Pragmatics is all about use: to describe pragmatics, one must describe semantics, and to describe semantics one must describe syntax: syntax semantics pragmatics 30

FOUNDERS OF SPEECH ACT THEORY Interest in speech act theory can be traced back to the end of the 19 th century or even earlier It is generally acknowledged that John Austin is 'the founding father of speech act theory' and his student John R. Searle has made the most thorough and recognized systematization of this theory of language, the basic tenet underlying which is that to speak is to act. 31

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JOHN LANGSHAW AUSTIN, (28 МАRCH 1911, LANCASTER — 8 FEB, 1960, OXFORD) a British philosopher of language, is widely associated with the concept of the speech act and the idea that speech is itself a form of action. Austin: language is not just a passive practice of describing a given reality, but a particular practice that can be used to invent and affect realities. 33

“How to Do Things With Words" is Austin's most influential work, in which he attacks what was at his time a predominant account in philosophy, the view that the chief business of sentences is to state facts, and thus to be true or false based on the truth or falsity of those facts. The truthevaluable sentences form only a small part of the range of utterances. 34

JOHN AUSTIN His work in the 1950 s provided a theoretical outline and the terminology for the modern study of speech acts developed subsequently by John R. Searle, Kent Bach, Robert M. Harnish, and William P. Alston. In theory of speech acts, attention has focused on the locution, illocution, and perlocution 35

Austin introduced the difference by means of a contrast with the three kinds of acts or aspects of acting: of saying something, the illocutionary act is an act performed in saying the locutionary act is an act something, the perlocutionary act is an act performed something. by saying Austin, however, eventually abandoned the "in saying" / "by saying" test (1975). 36

LOCUTION: : ILLOCUTION: : PERLOCUTION In uttering the locution “We’ve run out of bread" at the dinner table, one may thereby perform the illocutionary act of requesting / ordering to buy some bread, as well as the distinct locutionary act of uttering the declarative sentence about the absence of bread, and the further perlocutionary act of causing somebody to buy bread. 37

Professor of Philosophy at the, University of California, Berkeley Is noted for contributions to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and consciousness, on the characteristics of socially constructed versus physical realities, and on practical reason. JOHN ROGERS SEARLE (JULY 31, 1932) 38

SPEECH ACTS THEORY Theory of meaning holds that the meaning of linguistic expressions can be explained in terms of the rules governing their use in performing various speech acts e. g. , admonishing, asserting, commanding, exclaiming, promising, questioning, requesting, warning. 39

J. SEARLE & D. VANDERVEKEN’S BOOK DAVID VANDERVEKEN, PROFESSOR OF UNIVERSITY OF QUEBEK, CANADA J. SEARLE& D. VANDERVEKEN WORKED OUT THE SYSTEM OF ILLOCUTIONARY LOGIC 40

CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ACTS (SEARLE, 1975) Illocutionary speech acts: Assertives Directives Commissives Expressives Declaratives 41

Are speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition Next week we are having a seminar. She is well past forty, but she doesn’t look her age. Kyiv is going to be flooded. 42

are speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action, e. g. requests, commands and advice Would you make me some coffee, please? Make me some coffee (please). If I were you, I’d apologize 43

are speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action, e. g. promises and oaths I’ll do it for you. I swear to tell the truth 44

are speech acts that express on the speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the proposition, e. g. congratulations, excuses and thanks Well done! Thank you ever so much! I’m so sorry! 45

are speech acts that change the reality in accord with the proposition of the declaration, e. g. baptisms, pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husband wife I declare the meeting open 46

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH ACTS According to М. Halliday: SA is an elementary speech unit, succession of language expressions uttered by one speaker and understood by at least one hearer SA is the final one in the course of other actions; they can be universal (ie confirmation)and socially bound (asking about marital status, salary) perlocution is always universal, illocutions can be univeral and specific being differently represented in different languages SA can be smaller or bigger than the sentence Speech act connects verbal and non- verbal behaviour; 47

SPEECH ACTS CHARACTERISTICS (CTD) SA, viewed as a surface structure of the sentence, reflects textual connections and grammar rules; The typical task of SA is influencing on addressee’s thoughts; SA presupposes grammatical description, pragmatic context and speaker’s and hearer’s roles, underlying conventions and norms of a society. The literal meaning of the utterance is not decisive, it is important to understand the aim of SA: detecting of illocutionary force of the utterance is important; SА connects the sentence with the utterance. 48

SA PARTICIPANTS The addresser The addressee The speech act 49

THE (IN)DIRECT ADDRESSEE Direct addressee (A) is an intended direct recipient of the speaker's (S) communication. A listener is either an addressee (A) or a bystander (B), indirect addressee. Quasi-addressee (icon, computer, stars, photos etc. ) ABS 50

CONSTATIVES The Earth is round PROMISSIVES & MENASIVES I’ll come some time PERFORMATIVES I apoplogise DIRECTIVES (COMMANDS & REQUESTIVES) Go away (, please). QUESITIVES What’s your name? Prof. I. S. Shevchenko: + METACOMMUNICATIVES 51

DIRECT : : INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS Direct speech act occurs when semantics of the sentence corresponds the speech act: Where do you live? – In Kyiv. (question > quesitive) Get lost! – Imperative > Directive (command) Indirect speech act occurs when semantics of the sentence does not correspond the speech act: I want to know where you live. – In Kyiv. (indirect quesitive) Don’t you want to go away? (indirect command) 52

GRICE’S MAXIMS OF COMMUNICATION, 1975 Grice H. P. Maxim of quantity: Make your contribution just as informative as required. Maxim of quality: Make your contribution one that is true. Maxim of relation: Make your contribution relevant. Maxim of manner: Avoid obscurity and ambiguity. Be brief and orderly. 53

THAT’S ALL, FOLKS! 54