Lecture 4 TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL WORDS

Lecture 4. TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL WORDS

1) modal words (and modal phrases) 2) the preposition 3) the conjunction 4) the particle 5) the interjection + Article (in English)

1. Modal Words and Phrases/Modals lexical units characterised in both languages by their meaning of "modality“ used to express the speaker's judgement concerning the action/event or object in the utterance/ sentence e. g. : certainly, indeed, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt певне, напевне, звичайно, може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівно, etc.

Classified into: 1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: E. g. : certainly, of course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really (певне, напевне, звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда): 2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability E. g. : maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається)

3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability 4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty coinciding in form with the modal words denoting probability E. g. : fortunately, unfortunately, на щастя, на жаль, шкода E. g. : maybe, perhaps, proba bly — може, можливо, мабуть

The attitude of the speaker towards an event/ action may often be expressed by several other parenthetic words and phrases which may point to: a) authorship of the idea/assertion expressed in the sentence e. g. : they say, as reported, in my view, to my mind, 1 think - кажуть, як повідомляють, на мою думку, як говориться, etc. b) words and phrases expressing an estimation of the expressed idea in the sentence e. g. : shortly speaking, generally speaking, in a word — коротко кажучи, відверто кажучи, одне слово, etc. c) words pointing to the order or succession of ideas expressed in the sentence e. g. : firstly, secondly, on the contrary - по-перше, подруге, навпаки, etc.

Originate from 1). adverbs E. g. : really, probably, fortunately справді, очевидно, дійсно); 2) nouns with or without prepositions e. g. : in one's view, in one's opinion, to one's judgment — сором, страх, на мою думку, на мій погляд; 3) verbal phrases and sentences e. g. : it seems, you see - здається, бачите, як бачите, кажуть; 4) statives (in Ukrainian) e. g. : чутно, видно, etc.

in the sentence may occupy any position according to the emphasis they are given by the author/speaker E. g. : Perhaps he will come. He will, perhaps, come. He will come, perhaps. Можливо, він прийде; він, можливо, прийде; він прийде, можливо. may be used as elliptical sentences Eg: - Maybe you’ll do it for me? – Maybe. - Може, ти мені допоможеш? – Може.

. Typological Characteristics of Prepositions 2 Simple: at, in, of, with, to, by Прості: в, з, о, під, на, за, при, без Compound: inside, into, within, without, Складні: із-за, з-під, з-понад, попід, throughout, upon, etc. поперед, посеред, поміж, щодо, задля Derivative: along, below, beside, Похідні: внаслідок, завдяки, коло, inside, outside, etc. круг, поверх, поперек, довкіл, etc. Composite (Phrase prepositions): Складені: в справі, на відміну від, у by means of, because of, in accordance зв'язку з, поруч з, згідно з, незалежно with, owing to, in front of, in spite of, від, у відповідь на, збоку від, близько with regard to, on account of, etc. від, в межах, у плані, etc.

Preps are formed from: nouns: beside, in front of, in accordance with внаслідок, у зв'язку з, слідом за, коло, кругом; verbals (participles, diyepryslivnyks): owing to, concerning, including, включаючи, завдяки, зважаючи; adverbs (the largest number): along, before, down, among близько, довкола, ззаду, обабіч, серед, etc.

lexico-grammatical meaning: temporal E. g. : before noon до обіду, after that після того, during the war під час війни, since Monday від понеділка, until he came доки він не прийде, etc. ; local E. g. : along the road вздовж дороги, across the street через шлях, among the books серед книжок, in front of me переді мною, behind/over the house за/над хатою; causal E. g. : because of that через те що, in view of all this з погляду на це pervasive E. g. : he poured water all over me, з голови до ніг; concessive (допустові) E. g. : despite his expectations всупереч його очікуванням

combinability Bilateral combinability: left-hand right-hand

English POSTPOSED prepositions in: Interrogatives: Where are you from? What does it depend on? Exclamations: What a car did they drive by! Subjective with infinitive constructions: He’s impossible to deal with!

Syntactic relations 1. 2. 3. Agentive relations: the play written by Shakespeare, бути /під чиєюсь високою рукою/під орудою. Objective relations: to be angry/ satisfied with somebody, сердитись на когось, помиритися з кимсь. Attributive relations: birds of a feather, the man in question, товариші по школі, друзі з Канади.

4. Adverbial relations: a) temporal: to go on Monday, приїхати в березні b) local: behind the fence, in front of the house, під c) d) e) f) g) h) лісом; of direction: go out of the room, у кімнату/з кімнати of manner or comparison: to look in astonishment, the air came in a warm wave глянути з подивом of attendant circumstances: Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. зима прийшла зі снігопадами; of cause: My dog pants with the heat of concession: they continued their way despite the rain. Він приїде незважаючи на хворобу; of possession: books of his brother, Стояв генерал. . . при всіх орденах. Отже, будемо й ми при розумі.

5. other relations as: a) Relations of resemblance: she is like her mother , він схожий на батька b) Relations of subordination: to be a secretary to the firm manager, бути секретарем у посла c) Relations of dissociation: to be devoid of suspicion бути вільним від підозри/бути поза підозрою, etc.

Allomorphism: in the nature of the syntactic functions of prepositions. in English: linking Preps generally do not require any case form from the righthand nominal component But!!!! grammaticalised preposition of, to, for, by and with explicitly express the corresponding case relations, namely: 1. of the genitive case relation (books of hers, theirs) 2. to the dative case relation (sent to them, books for him/us) 3. by and with the instrumental (орудний) case relation (written by him/them, us, went with her, us, them), etc. In Ukrainian: preps govern nouns, pronouns, numerals, substantivised adjectives and nominal wordgroups, eg: праця в садку/на полі, лежати під грушею (під дубом), лист від нього/від першого, захист від польових гризунів, книжка для двох, переляк від червоного, etc. i. e. they require a certain case form

Typology of Conjunctions are functional words realising the connection of homogeneous parts in co-ordinate word-groups and sentences or linking subordinate clauses in composite sentences Structure 1) Simple : and, but, or, if, that, till і /й, а, бо, ні, та 2) Derivative/compound: all + though » although, un + less » unless, be + cause » because, un + till » until, where + as » whereas, a + бо » або, за + те » зате, як + що » якщо, як + би » якби 3) Composite (складені): as if, as soon as, in order that; так що; через те, що; для того, щоб; з того час, як; відтоді, як, etc.

syntactic functions co-ordinating conjunctions 1). Copulative (єднальні): and, nor, A. neither. . . nor, as well as, both. . . and, not only. . . but also; і/й, також, і. . . і, ні. . . ні, як. . . так і, не тільки. . . але й/і. 2). Disjunctive (розділові) : or, either. . . or або, ато, чи, або. . . або, чи. . . чи, то. . . то, чи то. . . чи то 3) Adversative (протиставні): but, still, yet але, проте, зате, однак, все ж 4) Resultative (пояснювальні): so, hence так, що, тож/отож, тобто, а саме, як от, 5) The causal conjunction (for) is pertaining only to English, eg: The windows were open, for it was hot. 6) Gradational: not only. . . but also, що не тільки…б а навіть…. 7) Adjoining: and, also, and still, Та й, та ще й B. subordinating conjunctions 1). of time: since, until, till, as long as, after, в міру того як, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве. 2). of place and direction: where, wherev er, whence, де б, куди, звідки. 3). of cause or reason: as, because, since, тому що, затим що, оскільки. 4). of condition: if, unless, provided, supposing, якщо б, коли б, аби, 5). of purpose: that, in order that, so that, щоб, для того щоб, з тим щоб. 6). of result: so that, так що, отож: , 7). of concession: though, although, as, even if, even though, however, wherever, нехай, дарма що, незважаючи (на). 8). of comparison: as, as. . . as, not so. . . as, than, as if, as though, як, що, мовби, немовби, наче,

Typological Characteristics of Particles unchangeable words specifying some component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause) do not express any syntactic relations Function: to emphasise, restrict or make negative the meaning of the units they specify by giving some additional shade (emotional, evaluative, etc. ) to their meaning/sense.

morphological structure 1. 2. 3. Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж, еге and others; Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нум, нумо, було, просто, все, воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи; Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз).

homonymy a) with adverbs: exactly, precisely, never, simply, still, просто, лиш, там, ще, вже; b) with adjectives (in English): even, right, just; c) with pronouns: all, either, все, воно, собі, те, то; d) with conjunctions (very few in English): but they are in Ukrainian (а, і, та, чи); е) with articles (in English only): the more, the better; the longer, the better.

semantic groups of particles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely, exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямо Demonstrative: here, there, ось, от, це, онде, ген, воно: "Here is the man". «Ото ж бо й є» Affirmative: well, now, yes, так, гаразд, еге ж, атож Intensifying: all, but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, таки, аж, навіть: "Не simply could not bear joking” Interrogative: well, really, no, why not, га, ну, невже, хіба, та ну, що за Connecting or linking: also, too (тож, також/теж, до того ж, ще й)

7. Negative or form-building: not, never, no, не, ні, ані. are used to: a) make a predicate verb negative, eg: "Six weeks isn't really long. . “ , "Don't you forget!“ , Ой не ходи, Грицю. . . b) make a part of the sentence/a component of a word-group negative, eg: "He is neither fish nor fowl. “, "Він триба, ні м'ясо. c) negate the preceding suggestion, eg: "I am careful". "No, you are not. " , "Я ж уважний. "Hi, ти не уважний. "

in English Form-building particles are used: a) as an infinitival identifier: to ask, to be reading; b) as a representation specifier (he'll come if asked to); c) as a specifier of degree (the larger part, he's the quickest, more quickly); d) as a negator of a word (eg: cannot) or a phrase (not he, certainly not, no reading practice).

Typological Characteristics of Interjections/Emotives Interjections are unchangeable words or phrases expressing emotional and volitional reaction of the speaker on some event. Hence, there are to be distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising interjections, which express respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or repugnance, etc. Cf. : "O-o, grand!" (Priestley) "O-o, пречудово!" "Fine!" (F. Fowles) - Прекрасно! "Oh, keeno!" (Murdoch) - Прекрасно! "Oh, it hurts me. Oh!" (Maltz) - Ой, як болить. Ой!

morphology 1). Simple interjections a) consisting of one or two sounds: ah, a-ah, oo, b) c) d) ooh, oof, coo, gee. а! е! о! е-е! ай! ах! ox! xa! xe!yx! am! etc. of consonant sounds only: brr, mm, sh (sh-sh) гм! хм! цсс! шш! брр!; more than two different sounds which form one syllable: gosh, tut, umph, whoop гай! гей! гов! гоп! пхе! пхи! etc; of two syllables: alas, ahem, boffo, hello/hullo, okey ага! агей! ату! агусь! ану! люлі! нумо! овва! ого! мугу!); e) reduplicating : ah-ah, ay-ay, ee-ee, goe-goe, howhow, ho-ho, hubba-hubba, chock-chock, ta-ta, tuttut. a-a, ану-ану, гай-гай, еге-ге, о-го-го, ну-ну, ха-ха. 2). Compound : heigh-ho, holla-ho, fiddlesticks, whoop, wo-ho, yo-ho, etc. Cf. : Господи-Боже! Добридень! Спасибі! Боже мій!

3). Derivative interjections a) b) c) d) e) f) of substantival origin: beans! bully! fiddle! hell! Lord! nuts! raspberry! rabbit! rats! taps! Господи! матінко! Боже! леле! жах! страх! ґвалт! слава! хвала! біда! горе!; of verbal origin: come! look! see! cut! bother! shoot! диви! гляди! бач! рятуйте! пробачте! даруйте! прощайте! побачимо! цур! of adjectival origin (mostly in English): fine! grand! right! dear! swell! divine! gracious!; of adverbial origin: here! there! now! well! why? so! добре! зараз! тут! там! так! геть! прекрасно!; of pronominal origin: "ay me! oh me!" (Shakespeare) отаке! стільки ж! отакої! "Куди ж писати? " "Отакої! Не знає куди!. . " (О. Гончар); of phrasal origin (contracted), which are rather numerous in English: howdy (from how do you do), alright (from all right), my! (from my God/my Lord), dammit (from damn it), attaboy (from that's a boy), добридень (from добрий день), спасибі (from спаси біг), тсь! цсс! (from тихіше), etc.

classes of meanings 1. Positive feelings (joy, satisfaction, sympathy), eg: "Great!" Michael said". (I. Shaw) Чудово!» — вигукнув Майкл. 2. Incentive orders (спонукальні накази), eg: "Hey, now! Wait a minute". (Dahl) «Гей там! Зачекайте» . orders given to domestic animals: gee-up! or giddap! hait! hi-up! (to horses) но! гайда! вйо! whoa, whoa! mnpy! sookl sook! цоб-цабе! puss, puss! киці, киці-киці; киць-киць; dilly, dilly! тась, тась! chook! chuck-chuck! ціп-ціп! etc. 3. Negative feelings (grief, sorrow, horror, alarm, disgust, etc. ): "Oops! It's after midnight". (Sheldon) "Тьху!" - сказав другий близнюк. "Дурниці!" — сказав Бос. . 4. Orders to stop an action: hist! hush! shush! , тихо! тсс! тс! шш! cave! — обережно! nuff! — годі! scat! shoo! — геть! 5. Greetings and partings "Oh, hello!" she called. . . " (Brash) "Howdy, " said Isabel. . . " (Capote) " «Здоров!» «Бувай!»