Lecture 4 Lexical level Stylistic classification of the

Lecture 4. Lexical level. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary 1. The semantic structure of a word: a) Denotative and connotative meanings as a factor of style; b) The contextual meaning and its stylistic function; 2. The stylistic classification of the English vocabulary; 3. The formal layer of the English vocabulary; 4. The informal layer of the English vocabulary.

Stylistic lexicology n Stylistic lexicology studies stylistic functions of the lexicon, the interrelations of denotative and connotative meanings of a word and stylistic stratification of the vocabulary. n The linguistic unit of major significance is a word which names, qualifies and evaluates the extralinguistic reality.

1. Semantic structure of a word n “A word is a basic unit of a language, which denotes a concept and expresses emotions and relations” / A. Meillet / n G. Frege n C. Ogden Reference Concept/Meaning and I. Richards Referential Approach Sound-form/ Graphic form Referent/thing

The Moscow school of stylistics (I. R. Galperin): n LOGICAL (referential, denotative); n NOMINAL & n EMOTIVE meaning n CONTEXTUAL meaning is accidental & found in a certain context

The Moscow school n The logical (referential) or denotative meaning is the precise naming of a feature, idea, phenomenon or object. n The nominal meaning nominates an object, singling it out of the whole class of objects. It is referred to proper nouns: Mr. Black, Mr. Hope. n The emotive meaning (usual or occasional) of a word is its capacity to evoke or directly express emotions. It is called emotive charge, emotive connotation or colouring: Oh! Why! Hell! E. g. : Here she is, a poor little lamb, with her bags all packed /Ch. Dickens/.

The Leningrad school Professor I. V. Arnold distinguishes: n DENOTATIVE n CONNOTATIVE meanings.

The Leningrad School: Prof. Arnold’s Semantic Structure of the Word Denotative meaning Connotative meaning Emotive component Expressive component Evaluative component Stylistic component

The Leningrad school n The EMOTIVE component evokes emotions (doggie, daddy) – diminutive suffix –ie, -y E. g. He besought a favour of the judge. (beseech умолять) n The EVALUATIVE component (negative or positive attitude, approval or disapproval): E. g. Time-tested method : : out-of-date method Famous: : notorious “Politics … is only the art to reach high position; wisdom is the art to get power, wealth, position” /H. Fielding/.

Leningrad school n The EXPRESSIVE component intensifies emotions and feelings: E. g. “She was a thin, frail little thing, ” “He is ever such a clever man” (ever, never, all, quite, really, terrific, wicked - intensifiers) n The STYLISTIC component (foregrounding) is characteristic of particular styles or spheres of communication E. g. official red-tape clichés: “I beg to inform” colloquial: slang, jargon: wicked, smashing, lousy, busy-body (nosey), stuff, cut it out etc.

b) Contextual meaning and its stylistic function n Each context does not only specify the existing meanings of a word, but is also capable of adding new meanings, or deviating rather considerably from what is registered in the dictionary. E. g. : n He's got a headache and a slight fever. n The whole country seems to be in the grip of football fever.

2. Stylistic Differentiation of the English Vocabulary Archaisms Foreign Words Barbarisms Poetic Literary (Formal) Vocabulary Neologisms Terms Neutral vocabulary Slang Jargon Non – Literary (Informal) Vocabulary Vulgarisms Nonce words Dialectal words

Literary (formal) vocabulary n Formal (Literary) vocabulary: includes words of solemn, elevated character (learned, sophisticated). E. g. “The party arranged themselves on the different sides of the lofty apartment, and seemed eager to escape from the transient union, which the narrowness of the crowded entrance had for an instance compelled them to submit to” /W. Scott/

Archaic words: 1. Historical words, which have no notion at present: yeoman, mace (жезл, булава), goblet (кубок), baldric (перевязь) distaff (прялка); 2. Obsolescent (rarely used), substituted by modern synonyms: thou, thy, art, wilt, -eth. 3. Obsolete (out of use at present, but recognized): methinks, alack, alas. 4. Archaic proper, not recognized in modern English: troth (faith), a losel /louzl/ (a lazy fellow), anon /e’non/ (soon).

Legal documents n Declaration: Persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities (hereinafter (далее) referred to as persons belonging to minorities) have the right to enjoy their own culture (…) n THIS ADDENDUM hereby (этим) modifies and supplements the attached Publication Agreement concerning the following Article… n By calling to access the Internet, Subscriber, and/or any person using Subscriber’s login identification name or login identification names ordered by Subscriber, is deemed to have accepted the items and conditions contained in this Internet Access Agreement (the “Agreement”) and shall be bound thereby (в связи с этим). n DEFINITIONS: “Subscriber, ” as used herein (в этом договоре), means an individual, a corporation, or a legal entity who incurs (несет, берет на себя) usage charges for the Service for its own use or who incurs such charges on behalf of a third party, i. e. , a User.

Barbarisms Words borrowed from foreign languages can be divided into: n Fully assimilated: wine, street; (no longer perceived as barbarisms) n Partially assimilated: machine, police, garage, prestige; n Unassimilated: randezvous, belles- lettres, alter ego, beau-monde, de facto, bon mot (barbarisms proper !) n Etc. , e. g. , i. e. (that is), ibid. (in the same book), cf (compare)

Foreign words proper n Foreign words are completely alien to the English language and they mostly fulfill a terminological function (solo, concerto, trio, blitzkrieg, Luftwaffe). n Moreover, they denote certain concepts which are not familiar to the English speaking community (volost, ukase, kolhoz, schnapps) n Foreign words can be used to supply local colour: E. g. : The little boy had a famous appetite, and consumed Schinken (ветчина), and Braten (жаркое), and Kartoffeln, and cranberry jam with a gallantry that did honour to his nation (W. Thackeray)

Poetic words n Poetic words (diction) denote a set of words traditionally used in poetry: E. g. : behold, deem, thou – thee (ты - тебя), quoth (said), foe, ere (before), woe, nigh, oft, anon, morn, visage.

Poetic words: n To a Skylark Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! (you, happy) Bird thou never wert, (you, were) That from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart (pours, your) In profuse strains of unpremeditated art (in rich melody of simple art). P. B. Shelley (1792 -1822)

Terms (special literary words) are words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technology n n n hydrophobic oil reservoir (гидрофобный коллектор нефти) airway bill (авиагрузовая накладная) boundary survey (межевание) laser (лазер) diode (диод) nullification (аннулирование)

Stylistic functions of highly literary vocabulary: 1. To characterize the speech of the bygone epoch and to reproduce its atmosphere (in prose). 2. To create a romantic atmosphere, the general colouring of elevation (in poetry); 3. To introduce the atmosphere of solemnity (in official speech), to indicate precision (in scientific texts, news reports and business documents)

INFORMAL VOCABULARY n INFORMAL VOCABULARY includes words of colloquial, conversational character used in personal, everyday communication. n Informal (colloquial) vocabulary is often made up by means of composition and conversion: E. g. a go-between (посредник), a let-down (разочарование), a has-been (потерявший популярность), a kill-joy (зануда) to cut it out to screw up

Occasional words/nonce words “Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed and uncled, and aunted and cousined within an inch of life” (J. Steibeck)

Slang n Slang: is a special vocabulary of low and vulgar type, often fresh and emotional. It possesses all the connotations: emotive, expressive, evaluative and stylistic. A hunk -handsome man A knockout - beautiful woman Munchies - snacks, like potato chips, popcorn, pretzels A wacko-crazy person

Jargon n Jargon: is a low colloquial vocabulary meant to be secret and cryptic (social jargon) or meant to be a colloquial equivalent of terms (professional jargon). E. g. : He got a book (a life sentence) (social) n to go west (die) (professional – military jargon) n a brass head (officer of high rank) (professional – military jargon)

Vulgarisms n Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation E. g. : n bloody, damned, cursed, hell n son of a bitch n the four-letter words

Vulgarisms are subdivided into n Expletives / swear words (damn, bloody, to hell etc) which are used as general exclamations n Obscene words, the use of which is banned as being indecent Function: to express strong emotions (annoyance, anger, vexation etc) Vulgarisms are found in emotive prose in the direct speech of the characters.

Dialectal words n A dialect is a form of a language that people speak in a particular part of a country n A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. n Where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation, the term accent is appropriate, not dialect.

Dialectal words are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but when used outside of them, they carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong. n In Great Britain four major dialects are distinguished: Lowland Scotch, Northern, Midland (Central) and Southern (Cockney, Estuary English). n In the USA four major dialectal varieties are distinguished: New England, Midwestern, Southern, Midland. n These classifications do not include many minor local variations

R. Burns “To A Mouse” The Original The Standard English Translation The best-laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft agley, An' lea'e us nought but grief an' pain, For promis'd joy! The best laid schemes of mice and men Go often askew, And leave us nothing but grief and pain, For promised joy!

Stylistic functions of the informal vocabulary: n To create a true-to-life atmosphere; n To add informality, intimacy; n To create a sense of immediate communication with the reader; n To create a satirical or ironic effect.

Questions 1. The semantic structure of a word consists of: a), b), c), d), e) …. meanings (2 approaches+examples). 2. The standard English includes… 3. The literary layer includes: a), b), c), d) … 4. The non-literary layer includes: a), b), c) … 5. What functional styles is each vocabulary layer used in? 6. Archaisms are subdivided into: a), b), c) … 7. Barbarisms are subdivided into…. 8. The difference between slang and jargon is… 9. Vulgarisms are subdivided into…. 10. What are dialectal words and when do they become stylistically relevant?