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Lecture 2 Lexical Stylistics • Types of lexical meaning of a word. • Lexical stylistic devices. Classification of lexical stylistic devices.
LEXICAL MEANING DENOTATIVE SIGNIFICATIVE CONNOTATIVE STYLISTIC EMOTIVE EVALUATIV E
For stylistic purposes it is necessary to distinguish • Logical (referential or denotative or direct or primary) meaning is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or objects by which we recognize the whole concept. • Emotive meaning refers to things or phenomena directly, but through the feelings and emotions, i. e. the emotive meaning bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them (e. g. I feel so terribly lonely). • Nominal meaning is characteristic of proper names, the logical meaning of the words they originate from may be forgotten (e. g. , smith-Smith, tailor-Taylor, ). • In a context words may acquire additional meaning not fixed in dictionaries, which is called contextual.
CLASSIFICATION of LSDs by I. R. Galperin LSDs The 1 st group is based on the interaction of various components of lexical meaning of a word The 2 nd group is based on the intensification of a certain feature of a thing or phenomenon The 3 rd group represents set expressions which can be used for stylistic purposes
The 1 st group of LSDs the interaction of primary and contextual meanings: metaphor, metonymy irony the interaction of primary and derived logical meanings: zeugma, pun the interaction of logical and emotive logical and nominal meanings: epithet, oxymoron antonoma sia
LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES The 3 rd group includes The 2 nd group is based on the intensification of a certain feature of a thing or phenomenon: simile, periphrasis, euphemism, and hyperbole. set expressions which can create a certain effect and can be used for stylistic purposes: clichés, proverbs and sayings, epigrams, quotations, allusions, decomposition of set phrases.
The 1 st group of LSDs: metaphor • Metaphor is a LSD based on the transference of some quality from one object to another on the basis of likeness, similarity of some sort (in shape, in size, in function, in colour etc. ) between the established referent of a word and some new referent, • two meanings are realized simultaneously, a e. g. a stony heart, the head of cabbage, star — a leading actress, etc. • When the qualities proper to people are transferred to inanimate things it is the case of personification: e. g. , The sea breathed heavily
• If the qualities of some animal are attached to human beings, these are cases of zoonification: e. g. The cop dogged me to the station. • Names of animals are used metaphorically to denote human qualities, • e. g. a tiger stands for a cruel person, • a chicken stands for a lively child, • an ass or a goose stands for a stupid person, • a bear stands for a clumsy person, etc.
Metaphors can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness into genuine trite • Metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected, commonly used in unpredictable are called speech and are even genuine. fixed in dictionaries, are trite, or hackneyed, or dead metaphors. • Genuine metaphors are regarded as speech • Trite metaphors belong to language as a system metaphors.
Metaphors can be classified according to the part of speech in which they are embodied • All notional parts of speech can produce metaphors, so we may speak about nounal, verbal, adjectival metaphors: • a splash of sun • The sea breathed • cold comfort, sweet voice • Her voice struggled on through the heat
Metonymy • is based on the identification of the tenor and the vehicle; the type of identification is that of proximity. • Metonymy— transfer of meaning based on contiguity, i. e. by naming a closely related object or idea, e. g. chair meaning the presiding officer, town meaning the inhabitants of the town.
Types of relations that may create the ground for metonymy: • a concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion, e. g. the word ‘crown’ may stand for ‘monarchy’; • the container used instead of the content, e. g. The hall applauded. He drank more than one cup. • the relations of proximity, e. g. The round game table were happy. ‘Bow to the board, ” said Bumble. • the material instead of the thing made of it, e. g. I lost one paper. She was dressed in silk and nylon. • the instrument instead of the doer of the action, e. g. …you are a very good whip, and can do what you like with your horses, you know. The buses are on strike. • a part instead of the whole, e. g. We need some new faces here.
Irony • is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two meanings - dictionary and contextual - on the ground of identification of associated phenomena, but the two stand in opposition to each other. • e. g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a city without a penny in the pocket.
The 1 st group of LSDs: the interaction of primary and derived logical meanings (zeugma, pun). Zeugma Pun • is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred. • e. g. He took his hat and his leave. The Rich arrived in pairs and also in Rolls. Royces. • is the use of a word so as to brings out different meanings or applications, or the use of words alike or nearly alike in sound form but different in meaning. It is often called play on words. • Why history was always hisstory, not hers? The best way to avoid washing the dishes is to have your husband eat out of your hands.
The 3 rd subgroup based on the interaction of logical and emotive meanings (epithet, oxymoron). Epithet • is a LSD based on the interplay of emotive and logical meanings of an attributive or adverbial unit. • Epithets should be differentiated from logical attributes, which are purely objective and non-evaluating. • • e. g. a black cat – black jealousy, a silent girl – a silent morning, a dog with a big head – a pigheaded dog. Oxymoron • is a LSD based on a combination of contradictory notions, the tenor and the vehicle are diametrically opposite (usually expressed by a word-combination), e. g. horribly beautiful, adoring hatred, a low skyscraper.
Epithets. Structurally epithets may be divided into: simple, or word epithets (expressed by nouns, adjectives or participles) e. g. , He looked at them in animal panic. The room was old and tired. compound epithets, e. g. , an apple-faced woman, joy-filled eyes phrase-epithets e. g. We did the ‘what do you do’ conversation two-step epithets, (epithets used with intensifiers), e. g. A marvellously radiant smile reversed epithets, usually composed of two nouns linked in an of-phrase a devil of a job, a cow of a girl
Epithets. Semantically epithets may be divided into: epithets based on anthroponymic or personifying epithets: broad-shouldered houses, singing grass; animalistic, or zoonymic epithets: mousy Philip synaesthetic epithets combining different senses: cold smile, bleak voice, cold look, aural images created by onomatopoeia, e. g. a sing-song accent, rustling silk epithets based on antonomasia: a Mona Lisa smile
Oxymoron depending on the relations between the words can be evident non-evident • words of favourable and unfavourable colouring are opposed, e. g. horribly beautiful. • combines the words that are not antonymous, they are not opposed if taken in isolation, e. g. joyful starvation.
The main structural types of oxymoron are: • Adjective + noun: delicious torment, painful pleasure, the • • poorest millionaire. e. g. And painful pleasure turns to pleasing pain. (Spenser) Adverb + adjective: horribly beautiful, awfully nice, horrifically good. e. g. He was horrifically good at talking up a market. (O’Flanagan) She found Simon Cochrane devastatingly handsome. (O’Flanagan) Verb + adverb: shout silently, look blindly. e. g. She looked blindly at him and said nothing. (O’Flanagan) Adjective + in. . . a way: ugly in a pleasant way, • • Adjective + kind of: a sweet kind of torture. • The stylistic function of oxymoron is to emphasize the contradictory character of the things described or to express the speaker’s ironic attitude.
The 4 th subgroup (antonomasia) • Antonomasia is a lexical stylistic device based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings • The main function of antonomasia is to characterize a person simultaneously with naming him.
Type 1: • a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun, • i. e. a lexical SD in which the
Type 2: • (vice versa) a common noun serves as an individualising name e. g. You have attracted thousands of eyes, Miss Shining Smile. (Fitzgerald) There are three doctors in an illness like yours. I don’t mean only my self, my partner and the radiologist who does your X-rays, the three I’m referring to are Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh Air. (D. Cusack)
Type 3: “speaking names” whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. In every language there is a special group of speaking or tell-tale names, like e. g. , Miss Sharp, Mr. Know –All, Mr. What’s-his-name, Mr. Owl Eyes, Colonel Slidebottom, Lady Teazle, Mr. Surface, Miss Tomboy, Miss Sarcastic, Miss Sneerface, Lady Bracknell, etc. e. g. The next speaker was a tall gloomy man. Sir Something Somebody. (Priestley) • e. g. Miss Languish – Мисс Томней, Mr. Backbite – М-р Клевентаун, Mr. Credulous – М-р Доверч, Mr. Snake – М-р Гад (Sheridan) • e. g. Lord Chatterino – Лорд Балаболо, John Jaw – Джон Брех, Island Leap-High - Остров Высокопрыгия (F. Cooper) •