Lecture 2 Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Lecture 2. Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices Plan 1. Word and its meaning 2. Stylistic Differentiation of the Vocabulary 3. The General Concept of Imagery, Linguistic Imagery 4. Lexical stylistic devices

Literature • Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. Стилистика декодирования. — Л. : Просвещение, 1981. — 303 с. — С. 74 -92, 105138 • Знаменская Т. А. Стилистика английского языка. Основы курса. Изд. 3 -е, испр. – М. : Едиториал УРСС, 2005. – 208 с. — С. 34 -76 • Мороховский А. Н. , Воробьева О. П. , Лихошерст Н. И. , Тимошенко З. В. Стилистика английского языка. — К. : Вища шк. , 1991. — 272 с. — С. 94136, 163 -195

1. Word and its meaning • A word serves to name, to qualify and evaluate the surrounding world. Any word has meaning (lexical and grammatical). • In stylistics it is important to discriminate shades of meaning, to atomize the meaning, the component parts of which are called the semes (the smallest units of which meaning of a word consists). It is important to discriminate between the meanings of a given word or construction in order to understand the idea of the text. A crucial issue for stylistic studies is the ability of a word to be polysemantic, i. e. to comprise several lexical meanings. Every word, no matter how rich in meanings, leaves the door open for new shades of meaning and even for independent meanings. Stylistics takes for granted that a word has an almost unlimited potentiality of acquiring new meanings. Grammatical meaning refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system.

• Lexical meaning is a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept. Lexical meaning refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary. Lexical meaning of any word presents a very complicated unity consisting of denotative and connotative meanings. Denotative (logical) meaning is connected with the extralinguistic reality. It is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon, or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept.

• Connotative meaning is connected with the conditions and participants of communication. Connotation comprises four components: emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic. All four components of connotation can be acting together, or in different combinations or can be entirely absent. • Evaluative component appears when the word expresses positive or negative attitude to the object it names. E. g. sneak – move silently and secretly for a bad purpose The word possesses stylistic meaning or is stylistically colored if it is typical for definite functional styles and preserves this coloring even when used in non-typical situations of communication. E. g. maiden (Archaism or literary word “a young unmarried girl” )

• Contextual meaning is born in the context and disappear if the context is altered. E. g. Mr. Ban gave a dark appraisal of the conflict Г-н Бэн дал негативную оценку данному конфликту.

2. Stylistic Differentiation of the Vocabulary • Formal • Neutral • Informal

• The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative situation, two smaller ones are literary (formal ) and colloquial (informal ) groups respectively. • E. g. father (neutr. ) – parent (book. ) – daddy (colloq. )

• Literary words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official everyday communication. The literary word are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear in writing. And vice versa: though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries, certain passages of memoirs, etc. ), their usage is associated with the oral form of communication.

3. The General Concept of Imagery, Linguistic Imagery • Art is virtually based on imagery. An artistic image is a unit of art and it serves to reflect reality as the author perceives it. • Art cognizes the reality synthetically — bv creating images as some models of the things described. Image is a strong means of reflecting both the existing reality, and the so called fictitious reality. • An artistic image may be defined as an artistic presentation of the general through the individual? of the abstract through the concrete and the sensuous. Artists use different materials (paints, sounds, etc. ) to create the images they want to express.

• There also exists verbal art where imagery is embodied in words — thus words are the material writers and speakers use when they want to create verbal images. The verbal image is a pen-picture of a thing, person or idea expressed in a figurative way by words used in their contextual meaning. • Thus, the literal (dictionary, logical) meaning is the one easily restored irrespective of the context, while the figurative (contextual) meaning is the one materialised in the given context.

As I. V. Arnold (1981: 76) points out, the verbal image is a complex phenomenon, it is a double picture generated by linguistic means, it is based on the co-presence of two thoughts of different things active together: • the direct thought termed the tenor (T) обозначаемое • the figurative thought — the vehicle (V) обозначающее The tenor is the subject of thought, while the vehicle is the concept of a thing, person or an abstract notion with which the tenor is compared or identified • The structure of a verbal image also includes: • the ground of comparison (G) — the similar feature of T and V; основание • the relation (R) between T and V отношение • the type of identification | comparison or, simply, the type of a trope (metaphor or simile)

• • T G R V E. g. The old woman is sly like a fox. (simile) T R V The old woman is like a fox. T R V The old woman is a fox. (metaphor) V The old fox deceived us.

• Images may be 1) general (macroimages) — sometimes embracing the whole book ( War and Peace) and 2) individual (microimages) — dealing with a certain thing, person or idea. E g. thistly wind. • Imagery can be created by lexical SD's only. All other stylistic devices (such as phonetic, graphic, morphological and syntactical SD's) do not produce imagery, but can serve as intensifiers. Any of them can add some logical, emotive, expressive information to the utterance.

3. Lexical stylistic devices • A trope can be defined as a sort of transfer based on the interplay of lexical meanings of a word that results in establishing connections between different or even opposite notions or things, which are understood to have some similarity in the given context.

cравнение (сходство) сравнение метафора антономасия смежность + + метонимия контраст + ирония оксиморон зевгма + + + эпитет + + гипербола литота возможно перифраз + + возможно количество

• The nature of the interaction may be affinity (likeness by nature), proximity (nearness in place, time, order, occurrence, relation) or contrast (opposition). • Respectively there is metaphor based on the principle of affinity, metonymy based on proximity and irony based on opposition.

A simile • A simile is based on the analogy between two things which are discovered to have some common feature, though they are entirely unlike each other. The formal connective may be expressed by conjunctions (as if, as though, such as), adverbs (like, unlike), verbs (resemble, seem, suggest, remind), suffixes (like) etc.

• Е. g. She seemed nothing more than a doll. My heart is like a singing bird. The function of simile is specifying and illustrating.

A metaphor is transference of names on the basis of comparison. "Building a bridge to the 21 st century. " (Bill Clinton), "It's morning again in America. " ( Ronald Reagan) • E. g. The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky. • She did not realize that opportunity was knocking at her door.

Metaphors are classified according to degree of familiarity or novelty • Dead (trite) metaphors, whose images are highly unmarked, e. g. the mouth of the river, the foot of a hill. • Stock or standard metaphors are established metaphors not deadened by overuse. E. g. the “body” of a car, 'he's on the eve of getting married' • Recent metaphor is an anonymous metaphorical neologism, which has become generally used in the language. E. g. red states – червоні штати “консервативні/республіканські штати США”, blue dog Democrat – консервативний демократ, “синій пес” “фінансово зацікавлений демократ і, як правило, прибічник політики південних штатів” • Original metaphors are created by the writers or speakers usually to make text more interesting and often used to highlight particular points. E. g. Their economy should be hunting for the defibrillator.

• The metaphor has no formal limitations: it can be a word, a phrase, any part of a sentence, or a sentence as a whole. Simple metaphors contain only one vehicle. E. g. His life was a tragedy. • Sustained (extended, prolonged) metaphors occur whenever one metaphorical statement, creating an image, is followed by another, containing a continuation, or logical development of the previous one. Hence, in a sustained metaphor the central vehicle is supported by one or more vehicles contributing to the same image. E. g. His life was a tragedy written in the terms of knock-about farce. (Maugham)

Metonymy • Metonymy is a trope based upon contiguity – upon a real connection (inward or outward) – between the object of nomination and the object whose name by way of associations is used to replace it. Metonymy is transference of names based on contiguity (nearness), (The metaphor has no real connection. ) E. g. The pen is mightier than the sword.

• "My brass will call your brass, " says one of the characters of A. Hailey's Airport to another, meaning "My boss will call your boss. " The transference of names is caused by both bosses being officers, wearing uniform caps with brass cockades.

Types of metonymy • the abstract stands for the concrete: E. g. But then he did not really want any of these people, did not want company for company’s sake. What he really wanted was Love, Romance, a Wonderful Girl of His Own. And these had lately all been assuming the same shape in his mind, that of Lena Golspie. (Priestley) • the container is mentioned instead of the contents: E. g. He sipped one more bottle (of whisky). • the material instead of the thing made of it: E. g. She was glancing through his water colours. • the maker stands for the thing made: E. g. The Rembrandt turned out to be fake. He adores Mozart. • the instrument is put for the agent: E. g. His brush can be easily recognized.

• Synecdoche is a specific kind of metonymic relationship - a qualitative one where a part stands for a whole, the singular stands for the plural. E. g. There were long legs all around. E. g. ‘A woman can forgive a man for the harm he does her’ he said, ‘but she can never forgive him for the sacrifices he makes on her account. ’ (Maugham) • Function. Metonymy usually creates an ironic or even sarcastic effect, sometimes it serves intensification.

Irony • Irony (meaning "concealed mоскеrу") is a device based on the opposition of meaning to the sense (dictionary and contextual). Irony is a stylistic device in which the words express a meaning that is often the direct opposite of the intended meaning. E. g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket. E. g. I adore political parties. They are the only place left to us where people do not talk politics” (Wilde) Apart from splits based on politics, racial, religious and ethic backgrounds and specific personality differences, we’re just one cohesive team. (D. Uhnak)

• There are 3 main types of irony : dramatic, verbal, situational. Verbal Irony is the difference between what is said and what is meant. Situational Irony is the difference between what actually happens and what is expected. Dramatic Irony is the difference between what the audience sees and what the characters believe to be true. • One of the functions of irony is producing a humorous effect. Irony gives critical evaluation of the thing spoken about and expresses ridicule, mockery or contempt.

Epithet • Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing & imaginary. (the sleepless pillow, the tobacco-stained smile, a ghost-like face). Epithet is an adjective, adverb or descriptive phrase used to characterise a person or object usually with the aim to give them subjective evaluation. • a criminal crusade

• Phrase-epithet (holophrasis) is semantically self-sufficient word combination or even a whole sentence which loses some of its independence and self-sufficiency, becoming a member of another sentence. • E. g. I-am-not-that-kind-of-girl look, shoot- them-down attitude • ”the sunshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell” (J. Baldwin) • “They raised their eyebrows with a good deal of To-what-arewe-indebted-for-the-honour-of-this-visitness” (Wodehouse) • “That was his live-and-let-live spirit” (Wodehouse) • Inverted epithets are composed of two nouns linked in an ofphrase. (the defining and the defined words change their places). E. g. the devil of a woman: an angel of a girl, a miracle of a car, a jewel of a house.

Periphrasis • Periphrasis is a roundabout way used to name some object or phenomenon. Periphrasis may be used instead of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. Some periphrases are easily decoded or familiar: прекрасный пол, сильная половина человечества, E. g. my better half (wife), our feathered friends (birds) • The stylistic effect (function) of periphrasis varies from elevation to humour and irony.

Euphemism • Euphemism is a variant of a periphrasis. It is also based on the use of a descriptive expression instead of the word denoting the notion. But it has a special character. Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. E. g. To die - to pass away, to be no more, to depart, to be gone, to join the silent majority Euphemisms are synonyms of those unpleasant words which aim at the producing deliberately mild effect.

Oxymoron • Oxymoron is a device which consists in joining together words of contradictory meaning. E. g. sweet pain, awfully nice, sweet sorrow, terribly smart. Живой труп, горячий снег • Function. Oxymorons disclose discrepancies of objects and phenomena as well as the contradictions of life. Sometimes they create an ironic or comical effect. E. g. the noble family of swine. (Golding)

Zeugma • Zeugma is a device stylistic in which a single word, usually a verb or adjective, is syntactically related to two or more words, though having a different sense in relation to each • E. g. I like to have a tea with you and with cookies. • Zeugma is the blending together of two or more semantically incompatible word groups, having an identical lexical item (a polysemantic word), into a single construction where this item is used only once. Function. The effect produced by is humorous or ironical.

Pun • Pun. The term is synonymous to the expression 'play on words'. It is based on the interaction of the 2 well-known meanings of a word or a phrase in the same context. Pun may be based: • 1) on homonymy: Is it fair that the bus fare is so expensive? Knight and day

• 2) on polysemy: E. g. What steps would you take if an empty tank were coming toward you ? - Long ones. E. g. And you thought we only covered business.

Antonomasia is the use of a proper name for a common one and vice versa. There are several types of antonomasia: 1) The name of a famous personality may stand for a characteristic feature: Romeo (for a person in love); Othello for a jealous person; 2) the name of the place for the event that took place there: Waterloo - defeat; 3) the name of some establishment (or the policy): The White House - American policy; Fleet street - English mass media; 4) geographical names for the things that came into being there: China - china; Champaign - champaign; 5) names of things after the names of their inventors: Sandwich. Its function is characterization through name, creation of humorous atmosphere.

Hyperbole • Hyperbole is a stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration. Hyperbole is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality. E. g. I have told it to you a thousand times. The man was like the Rock of Gibraltar.

Litotes • Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. E. g. "Her face was not unhandsome" (A. H. ) or "Her face was not unpretty". (К. K. )